Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU), Delhi. Previous Year / Old Question Papers for B.Ed (BEd) Program

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ES331
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Dec06
1. Ansper the following question in about 600 words.
What do you mean by the concept “curriculum emluation” ? Why do we evaluate curriculum ? Discuss.
OR
Describe with exarnple the input-process-output model of
a system as applicable to any instructional system
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Explain with examples various teaching skills required for effective teaching at the Secondary/Senior .Secondary School level.
OR
Disctrss with examples the following training strategies :
(i) Interaction analpis
(ii) Simulation
3. Attempt arry fourof the following questions. Answer each question in about 150 wonds
(i) How is Tyler’s Model of curriculum construcfion -tr_ different from Taba’s Model ? lffi (iil Explain the role of rarious factors to be tiaken into view while planning a curriculum :
(ii| Identify and briefly explain the causes that make a given instructional system inefficient. (i9 Dfferentiate between various styles of progranwred instruction.
(v) Describe the organisation and er.raltntion of the micro-teaching approach.
(vi) Dscuss various levels of instruction with’the help of examphs.
(vii) Discuss merits and demerits of activity based inshuction.
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
You have studied instructional media in Block /ES 331. You must have watched/istened to some educational TV /radio programmes. o Present an overview of the content, objectives, format and learning outcomes of the programme. o Discuss the rationale for selection of the medium (television or radio). o Suggest measures to improve effectiveness of the programme.

Jun06
1. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
‘The main problems of curriculum are lack of sequence, continuity and integration of content included in curriculum.’ Discuss the statement with convincing arguments.
OR
Describe the components and sub-system of a given instructional system and explain their integration.
2. Answer the following ql.restionin about 600 words’ l Describe as to how the teacher, the student and the environment can functiQLas.
-‘-/- -‘
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Discuss the mechanisms of efleclive management of instruction.
3. Answer any four of the following questions in about 150 words each :
(i) Discuss how a well planned curriculum can make teaching and learning more effective.
(ii) Discuss the role of different types of reinforcements in classroomte aching.
(iii) Describe learner-related factors which influence I curriculum developrhent and transaction. i
I,
(iv) Describe the role of formative evaluation in curriculum development.
(v) Identify common defects of teaching through demonstration and suggest suitable measures to remove them.
(vi) Fxplain with examples the procedure of conducting group-investigationo f a problem.
(vii) How will you formulate instructional strategy for your teaching ? Discuss
4. Answer the {ollowing question in about 600 words’ You have studied about flow-charting the content in Block 3,/ES-331.
(i) Analyse the content of a topic of your choice from your discipline/subject and present it through a flow chart.
(iil Justify the flow chart you have presented’
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ES332
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Dec06
l. Answer the following question in about 600 words Explain the behaviourist approach to learning. Discuss its educational implications.
OR
Explain the concept of transfer of learning. Discuss different types of transfer of learning and explain their educational implications.
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Explain the genetic basis of indMdual differencqs.D iscuss the role of heredity in influencing the mental development of the learners.
Discuss special needs of learners/children from the deprived section of society. What role will you play in fulfilling those needs ?
3. Attempt any four of the following questions in about
150 words each :
(i) What do you understand by affective domain ? Discuss the main organising principles in affective domail,
(iii) Disctrss any three characteristics of gifted chr[dren.
(iv) Discuss the relationship between maturiry and learning. Give suitable examples in support of your answer.
(v) Explain any three basic assumptions that Ne necessary for providing guidance to the learners.
(vi) What arethe various causes of conflicts ? How would you resolve the conflicts among yo{.lr students ?
(vii) Describe the characteristics of a creative child.
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
How will you identify socially maladjusted students in your class ? How will you help them in making their social adjustment better ? Justify your answer with suitable examples.

Jun06

1. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Differentiate between the concepts of growth and development. Discuss adolescence as the crucial stage of human development.
OR
Explain the concept and nature of personality. Discuss the
psychoanalytical and psychosocial approaches in
understanding personality
2. Answer the followingq uestioni.n about 600 words.
Explain the psychometric approach to understand the concept of intelligence. Discuss appropriate instructional strategies for handling individual differences of the learners at various levels of intelligence.
OR
Explain the concept of learning. Discuss various characteristicso f learning with suitablee xamples.
3. Attempt any lour of the following questions in about
150 words each ,
(i) Explain the principles of learning deduced from the learning theory of Thorndike.
(ii) Explain nature of soclal adjustment and social maturity with examples.
(iii) Discuss briefly the relationship between heredity and environment on growth and development of the individual.
(iv) Define the concept of motivation and explain its role in learning.
(v) Discuss teachers’ role in improving group relationship in a school.
(vi) Briefly discuss broad classification of students with special needs with relerence to physical and mental aspects.
(vii) Discuss impact of vanious mass media on personality development of school children.
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
One of your students has secured 95o/o in the Board’s examination. How will you find out whether he is gifted or creative ? in case you have identified him as a gifted student, what steps would you follow while guiding him in the school ?
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ES333
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Dec06

l ‘ Answer the following question in about 600 words. M’goeondtio’ n and discusst he basic featurest hat characterisea evaluation tool.
What is diagnostic
teachers/studehts
learning ?
OR
testing ? In what way is it helpful to
in improving classroom teachi ng/
2. Answer the following queition in about 600 wordsi Discuss the use of ‘observation’ as a technique for evaluating non-scholastic aspects of student behaviour. How should the teacher ensure the reliability “urd validity of observation ?
OR
• Mention and discuss in brief the steps for constructing and standardising an achievement test’ g. write short notes on any ‘four of the following in about 150 words each :
(il Prep are a good marki,ng scheme f’ot the anntlal examination in your subject of teaching.
(ii) Differentiate betw een Absolute and comparative grading.
(iii) Discuss use, advantages and disadrnntages of oral Develop outline of a scheme of comprehensive evaluation for students of Secondary Educatiofi’ Differentiate between Mean, Median and Mqde and their interPretation.
(vi) Discuss how coefficient of correlation misinterPreted.
(vii) Differentiate between grading and numerical marking.

4. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Choose a teaching unit of the subject of your choice. Give examples (2 each) of different types of assignments you would give to your students of Class IX. What actions as follow-up of these assignments will you take ?

Jun06
1. Answer the following question in about 600 words’ Explain various components of ‘Evaluation’ and define Evaluation with the help of suitable examples’
OR
What is meant by ‘self-reportingt’e chniqueo f evaluation? Mention any four self-reporting instruments’ What precautions will you keep in mind while evaluating through self-reportingte chnique?
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Explain the meaning and importance of educational diagnosis. Discuss the purpose and use of diagnostic tests.
OR
What is the need and importa nce of Remedial material ? Explain the process of preparation and use of Remedial material with suitable examples.
Write short notes on any four of the following in about 150 words each :
(i) Characteristicso f good evaluationt ool
(ii) Item analysis- concepta nd use
(iii) External evaluation- advantagesa nd disadvantages
(iv) Anecdotal record - concept and its use
(v) Sociogr’am - concept and use
(vi) Normal probability curve - its theoretical base and properties Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Mention the various steps involved in construction of
Criterion-Referenced test. Take up a unit in your subject
and construct criterion-relerencedte st having 12 items on
the basis of above meniloned steps
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ES343
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Dec07
l. Answer the following question in about 600 words , Explain the significance of media in teaching of Social Studies. Discuss the media used frequently in teaching of Social Studies. with examoles.
Differeniiate between cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes. Discuss uarious forms of test items for cpgnitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes with examples from Social Studies.
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
Discirsss ociall ife and economicc onditionsp revailingd uring lndus Valley Civilization. Develop an instructional strategy to teach this topic mentioning content points, specific instructional objectives, teachingJearning activities and evaluation items.
OR
• Discuss major types of climate ol lndia. Develop an instructional strategy to teach this topic mentioning content points, specific instructional objectives; teaching-learning actMties and ermluation items.

3. Write short answers to any four of the following questions in about 15b words each ,
(i) Discuss the factors taken into consideration while organlsing Social Studies curriculum.
(ii) Explain with examples how questioning skill can be used in teaching Social Studigs.
(iiil Dfferentiate between a unit plan and a lesson plan.
(iv) Hw,t can continuous and comprehensive evaluation be implemented in Social Studtes ? Explain Discuss methods and media to introduce the concept of cultural heritage of lndia.
What is the need of maintaining environmental balance ? How can you explain it to your str-tdents? What are the different tgpes of soils found in India ? Construct four multiple-choice items to test students’ understanding of Indian soils.
What are the various indicators of economic development ? How can you teach this topic to your students ?
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
• Suppose you had organised project work in teaching of Social Studies. Discuss the stages of organising project work namely :
(t Planning of the project work
(it Implementation ol the project work
(iii) Erraluaiion o{ the project work

Jun07
1. Answer the following question in about 690 words :
Discuss with examples how demonstration method can be used in teaching of Social Studies. Point out the difficulties faced by a teacher during various steps while teaching through demonstration method.
OR
Discuss the role of instructional media in teaching Social
Studies. Justify ybur answer by giving suitable examples
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
What do you understand by Geographical Discoveries ? Mention the events which helped in geographical discoveries and discuss their effects OR Describe the purpose and various aspects of evaluation in Social Studies.
3. Write short answers to any four of the following questions in about 150 words each :
(i) What do you understand by Brain-Storming technique ? How can a teacher use it in leaching of Social Studies ?
(ii) Briefly discuss the influence of political factors on cultural development.
(iii) Explain the basic features of Indian Economy.
(iv) Discuss in brief the effects of Industrial Revolution on the environment.
(v) Describe in brief the reasons for the decline of Harappan culture.
(vi) Explain the impact of liberal ideas of the West in
British India”
(vii) What are the advantages of comm erclalieing animal rearing ?
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
Suppose you had visited the nearby community alongwith your students to know the opinion of people about the impact of population, poverty and ernployment on the Indian Economy. What conclusionsd id you infer ?

Dec06

l. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
Describet he objectiveso f teachingS ocial Studiesi n school with respect to learners’ needs and expected outcomes.
OR
Explain the concept of Integrated Approach of teaching Social Studies and its significance, by giving ‘suitable examples.
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
Explain the concept of ‘Cultural Heritage’. Develop an instructional plan for teaching this topic to IX Class including teaching points, specific instructional objectives, instructional activities and Evaluation Questions.
OR
Explain the concept of ‘Natural Resources’. How would you develop an instructional plan including teaching points, specific instnrctional objectives, instructional activities and Evaluation Questions for teaching a topic of “Natural Resources” ?
3. Write short answers to any four of the following questions in about 150 words’each :
(i) Why is the preservation of wild life important ? What w ere the steps taken for the preservation of wild life ?
What is natural vegetation ? Explain the factors which determine the growth of natural vegetation of India. Compale the economic and social conditions of Indian society in the 18th century with present day Indian society.
Discuss the difference between Quantitative and Qualitative assessment.
(v) Discuss the impact of social reform movement on the life of people.
(vi) What are the advantages of Project Method in teaching Social Studies ?
(vii) Briefly mention the causes responsible for economic and social inequality in India.
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
Suppose you were asked by your principal to make a survey on ‘Under-utilization of Forest Resources in the Community’. How did you interact with the communit5l on this issue ? On the basis of your interaction prepare a report highlighting the reasons f or under-utilizatona nd also olfer suggestions for maximum utilization of forest resources.

Jun06
1. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
Explain individualised instruction. Discuss with examples individualised instructional methods used in teaching of Social Studies.
OR
Define ‘social Studies’ as a field of knowledge. Discuss learning outcomes expected of the teachingJearning activities in Social Studies.
2. Answer the iollowing question in about 600 words i Discuss the meaning of geographicadl iscoveriesS. electa suitable topic and develop an instructional strategy mentioning content points, instructional objectives in behaviouratle rms,t eaching-learninagc tivitiesa nd evaluation items.
OR
Discuss the ideals o{ the Indian Nation enshrined in its Constitution. Develop an instructional strategy to teach this mentioningc ontent points, specifici nstructionaol bjectives, teachingJearning activities and evaluation items.
3. Write short answers to any four of the following questions in about 150 words each :
(i) Describe professional and personal qualities a Social Studies teacher ought to possess.
(ii) How can yof utilise the expertise oI a guest speaker effectively in Social Studies class ? Explain.
(iii) Differentiate between numerical marking system and grading system. Which one would you prefer in assessing studerlt performance in Social Studies ?
Justify your answer
(iv) Differentiate between the terms - ‘latitudes’ and ‘longitudes’. What communication media would you use to bring out their differences ?
What are different forms of occupations ? Develop four multiple choice type items on this content. What methods and media would you adopt to explain the main features of Indian economy ? What is a diagnostic test ? Explain its use in the teaching of Social Studies by giving suitable examples.
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words :
During teaching in schools, you might have come across certain difficult topics to be learnt by students. How did you tgach them ? Illustrate the lesson plan for them in detail.
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ES344
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Dec07
1. Mention three major approaches to English Language teaching. Which one do you think is the best and why ?
What is the place of English in Indian society ? Discuss,
bringing out the implications for teachers of English in this
context
2. Name the four skills of language. Which one do you think is the most important in the contexi of teaching-leaming English in lndia ? Give a reasoned answer arrMng at the objectives of teaching English in India.
OR
Discusst he characteristicso f Readinga nd its implications for the Reading teacher.
3. Attempt any four of the following questions in about 150 words each :
(i) What are the three phases of a listening class. ?
Dscuss any one of them.
(ii) Discusst he characteristicso f an effective oral skills lesson.
(iii) List the nine areas in which a writer needs. some competence according to Anita Pincas. Explain any one of them in detail, giving examples.
(iv) What is the place of grammar in linguage learning ?
Discuss, bringing out the changing approach to grammar in recent times.
(v) How will you develop* study skills among your students, as an English teacher ? Give examples.
(vi) Mention at least four reading problems and write a detailed note on anv one of them.
4. What is a lesson plan ? Describe, giving examples, the role of a lesson plan for an effective English class

Jun07
1. Ansruer the foilowing question in about 600 words.
What is the relationship between the need for leaming a : Ianguage and its teachiqg objectives ? E*pluin with an example from teaching of English as a second language.
OR
‘Learners law different cognitive styles.’ How is this observation useful for classroom teachers ? Give exarnples from teaching of ,English as a second language.
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
What are the major differences between learning L1 and LZ ? Discuss the different contexts in which children formally learn certain language skills.
OR
In the context of learning language, discuss the role of integrative and instrumental motivation. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answer.
3. Answer any four of the following questions in about 150 words each :
(i) List down three features of a good listening task.
(ii) In order to teach conversation skills, why is it important to understand the differences between speech and writing ?
(iii) How can a teacher use dictation for story-telling and developing learners’ speech skills ?
(iv) List down the major skills needed to write a good summary.
(v) What aspects of writing should be given importance to at the secondary level ?
(vi) Frame a multiple choice itern to test your learners’ knowledge of grammar.
4. Answer the following question in about 600 words.
Discuss the differences between discrete and integrated items given to test the grammatical competence of learners. Give an example from each to illustrate your answer.

Dec06
1. Answer the following qu,estionin about 600 words.
What are the unique individual characteristics of the learner that influence learning ? Discuss these in the context of teaching English as a second language.
OR
. :
What is a cognitive style ? Discuss the cognitive styles important for developing communicative skills in second language learning.
2. Answer the following question in about 600 words’ What do you understand by ‘method’ of teaching language ? Discuss the relationship betwebn approach’ method and techniqrrs of language teaching uslng a suitable examPle.
OR
What are the important components of a lesson plan ?
Discuss your,ansrrter by illus-trating insbuctional objectives
for a poetry lesson for any class you teach’
3. Answer any lour of ttie fottowing questions in about 150 words each :
(i) What are the three kinds of listening materiali thlt can be used by a teacher:? Ust one advantage and one disadvantage,of each material’ , :
(ii) write at least foui characteristibs of an effective oral skills lesson’
(iii) What.is alexia and how does it affect one’s rea{iqlg ability ? , ,
(iv) What are ‘signposf qu€stions ? I :
(v) Frame two test items for tesdng reading “ comPrehension’
(vi) What is the significance of vocabulary games ? ‘
4. Ans,.r.retrh e following question in about 600,uprdsr : : . .
Discuss the methods of marking composition with suitable examples.

Jun06
l. What is the statuso f Englishl anguagein the contexto f our Indian education system ? Discuss the role of the English teacher in this context giving suitable examples’ OR Out of the four skills of language, which one do you think is most important ? Give a reasoned answer bringing out the objectives of teaching English in India.
2. What is the meaning of Efficient Reading ? DiscussE. xplain the characteristicosf readinga nd their impricationsfo r the teacher of English language.
OR
Distinguish between intensive reading and extensive reading.D iscussth e learningo bjectiveso f intensiver eading in detail.
3. Answer any four of the following questions in about
150 words each :
(i) Mention at least four different kinds of listening activities which can be used in the classroom for teaching listening skills. Describe any one of them in detail.
(ii) Mention at least four different kinds of Speaking Activities that can be used in the classroom for teaching speaking skills. Describe any one of them in detail.
(iii) Distinguish betwoen study skiils and ringuistic skiils.
What is the role of study skills in the English curriculum ?
(iv) Distinguish between formal and functional grammar.
Which one is more useful in language teaching and why ?
(v) Discuss the pedagogic principles of ,structural oral sifuational method’ in language teaching.
(vi) Write a note on different kinds of vocabulariesa nd their implications for the teaching of vocabulary
4. What are the essential cornponents of a lesson plan ?
Discuss the weak and strong poinis of any one lesson-plan
. which you must have prepared durin^g teaching at
Secondary level’

Indira Gandhi National Open University ( IGNOU ) New Delhi. Consolidated Study Guide for Batural of Education (BEd)(B.Ed.) Program

Below SYLLABUS is covered in this post

1550-1660

COURLY LOVE POETRY

1. Wyatt: They Flee from Mee

2. Spenser: Prothalamion

ELIZABETHAN DRAMA:

3. Shakespeare: Hamlet

4. E.M.w. tillyard: Elizabethan World Picture(introduction)

17TH CENTURY POETRY

5. Donne: The Canonization , Lecture upon a Shadow , Death be not proud

6. Herbert: The Pulley

7. Marvell: To his Coy Mistress, Garden

1660-1800

AUGUSTAN SATIRE

8. Dryden: Mac Flecknoe

9. Pope: Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot

18TH CENTURY PROSE

10. Samuel Johnson: Letter to the Earl of Chesterfield(in Life of Johnson)

11. Browell: Life of Johnson(41-115, The Portable Johnson and Boswell)

1TRANSITIONAL POETS

12. Gray: Elegy

13. Collins: Ode to Evening

14. Burns: To a Field Mouse

1800-1900:

POETRY:

15. Blake: Ah! Sun Flower, Sick Rose

16. Worsworth: Tintern Abbey, Slumber

17. Coleridge: Ancient Mariner

18. Keats: To a Nightingale; on a Gracier urn

19. Shelley: Ode to West wind

20. Byron: The vision of judgement(Portrait of King George – stanzas 36-50)

FICTION:

21. Jane Austen: Northanger Abbey

22. George Eliot: Adam Bede –summary needed

23. Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights

24. Conan Doyle: The Hound of Baskervilles

1900 and after

MODEMIST FICTION

25. E.M.Forster: A passage to India sparkNotes answers to study questions, explanations for important annotations

LITERATURE IN ENGLISH

26. Wole Soyinka: The Road

27. V.S.Nipaul: A House for Mr.Biswas and take printout of the study guide

INDIAN WRITINGS IN ENGLISH

28. Toru Dutt: Ancient Legends and Ballads of Hindustan selections – study guide neeeded

29. R.K.Narayan: Guide

30. Raja rao: Kanthapura

31. Mulk Raj Anand: untouchable

32. Shashi Deshpande: That Long Silence

33. Book: Ten Twentieth Century Poets(edited by Partha sarathy)

Ezekel, Ramanujam, Kamaldas- Importance of literature done by these poets

34. Book: Sri Aurobindo: Future Poetry – Brief summary for

-first 5 chapters

-Chapters on Morlowe and Shakespeare
-Chapters on romantic Poets

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1. They flee from me that Sometime did me Seek - Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542)
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1 They flee from me that sometime did me seek
2 With naked foot, stalking in my chamber.
3 I have seen them gentle, tame, and meek,
4 That now are wild and do not remember
5 That sometime they put themself in danger
6 To take bread at my hand; and now they range,
7 Busily seeking with a continual change.

8 Thanked be fortune it hath been otherwise
9 Twenty times better; but once in special,
10 In thin array after a pleasant guise,
11 When her loose gown from her shoulders did fall,
12 And she me caught in her arms long and small;
13 Therewithall sweetly did me kiss
14 And softly said, "dear heart, how like you this?"

15 It was no dream: I lay broad waking.
16 But all is turned thorough my gentleness
17 Into a strange fashion of forsaking;
18 And I have leave to go of her goodness,
19 And she also, to use newfangleness.
20 But since that I so kindly am served
21 I would fain know what she hath deserved.


Notes
1] "The louer sheweth how he is forsaken of such as he sometime enioyed" (Tottel).
2] stalking: walking carefully in a stealthy way.
5] in danger: under obligation to me, in my debt (or possibly even: in my power).
9] Twenty times better: better on twenty occasions; or more than twenty times?
in special: especially.
10] pleasant guise: pleasing style, or possibly behaviour or livery (dress).
12] small: slender.
14] heart: a play on "hart."
15] broad waking: wide awake.
16] thorough: through.
18] leave to go of her goodness: her gracious permission to go (ironically).
19] newfangleness: literally: fondness for novelty, following the fashion; fickleness.
20] kindly: in a kind way (ironically), and according to nature (as a wild animal would behave).
Commentary 1
Complaints by a male abandoned by his mistress are seldom as thoughtful as Sir Thomas Wyatt's "They flee from me." In the Henrician Renaissance, women lacked most of the legal, social, and sexual rights they have taken increasingly for granted since the 1920s. Married Henry VIII enjoyed his mistress, Elizabeth Blount, by whom he had a male child, and seduced many other women, including the Boleyn sisters, before he eventually divorced Katherine of Aragon to marry Anne. His court followed the king's example with women. Courtiers, like Henry, wrote love lyrics in pursuing a woman's sexual favours, but once seduced, unmarried women lost their power. Few men would complain, in lyrics, about being rejected by someone they had successfully bedded because they usually were fully prepared to move on to new sexual partners and positions.
Wyatt's personal lyric, uttered reflectively to what seems an intimate friend, reverses the usual male-female roles in sexual liaisons. Promiscuous at first, in the opening stanza, giving "bread" to the mouths of many who sought him out in his chamber, Wyatt himself is "caught" (12) in the second stanza by one of the "wild" ones he used to tame there. Before, those that sought him out came with "naked foot" (2), vulnerable and complaisant. They ate at his hands. Then came one who unrobed herself and brought a kiss down to his mouth as he "lay broad waking" (15). The man to whom women had once lowered themselves to take their nourishment at his hand now appears prostrate before a woman who lets her thin gown drop from her shoulders, naked again, as before, but this time standing over him and bending herself down to him. Her power over him comes out in her questioning, "dear heart, how like you this?" This time, she is the pleasure-giver.
The poem centres on this moment, a male sexual fantasy. It is one thing for a man to take what he wants from diminished creatures, but quite another to have the seduced orchestrate her own sexual service. To be desired for the "bread" he has to offer pales besides being treated as the bread itself. Even as a male seducer becomes a seduced, the female who put herself "in danger" before takes his former power. This exchange in place occasions the change that Wyatt introduces in the first line. The seeker now leaves him for other interests, for "newfangleness" (19).
In the third stanza Wyatt describes this reversal, not as betrayal, but as courtesy. It is a "strange fashion of forsaking" (17) –
foreign and unEnglish -- because she takes her cue from his own "gentleness." Before, when she among many others came to his chamber and put themselves "in danger," whether of rejection, rape, or love longing, he gave them "bread" by hand. His promiscuous gentleness tamed them, in turn, to be "gentle." Later, he submitted to his mistress's own advances when, "sweetly," she kissed him; and this time he, not she, acquiesced. When she gives him "leave to go of her goodness," permission for them both to do what he had done many times himself, that is, to practice "newfangleness" and play the field (19), she mirrors his gentle nature. Yet this leads Wyatt to pose the poem's closing ethical problem: "since that I so kindly am served / I would fain know what she hath deserved." Does her abandonment of him merit a like gentleness and sophistication because he is fundamentally responsible for laying down the rules of their relationship? or does Wyatt deserve the sympathy owing to a victim, and his mistress the contempt of a woman loose in more than her gown? Love affairs are rife with insoluable difficulties. Ending as it does, should we say that Wyatt's poem leaves us without an answer?
If poetry were just information, we should be dissatisfied, but Wyatt carefully deploys language and metaphor to imply what cannot be stated. His choice term "kindly" (20) means, not only "considerately" (possibly with an ironic undertone), but "according to nature or species." The first stanza describes the women that sought his favours simply as "they" and "them," without hinting that they are either feminine or human. Other words applied to them, such as "stalking," "tame," "wild," "take bread at my hand," and "range," belong to a world of creatures rather than people. In Early Modern English, Wyatt appears to be describing birds, either pigeons or birds of prey. The Henrician court hunted routinely with falcons and hawks, which were controlled by means of jesses, slips of leather around their legs, and whose feet were called "stalks" (OED "stalk," sb. 1, 3). The verb "seek," as well, has hunting associations. Birds "with naked foot" were thought tame, unlikely to fly away except on command, but something happened to make them wild and return to their unpredictability.
Not only do the birds of the first stanza become the woman of the second, but she becomes the hunter, catching (12) Wyatt the "dear heart" (which may be a play of words on the noblest game, the "hart"). The male hunting man is thus transformed into a submissively gentle prey. Both man and woman, in turn, become less than human. In their natural world, questions of ethics, responsibility, and deserving do not apply. That is what Wyatt wants to know and cannot bring himself to admit. Changeability is a characteristic of the material world under the moon, not of the morally charged spirit. He has been treated naturally. She is not guilty by reason of diminished responsibility.
In his poetic revision of Wyatt's poem (1991), Gawin Ewart turns Wyatt's birds into "chicks" and calls his forsaking mistress a "bitch." This transformation reflects late 20th-century sexual mores and uses a vocabulary of human character with which Wyatt would not have been familiar. A 16th-century lover, bewildered in several senses, has given away to our new man, "emotionally underpriviliged" in a woman's world.
Summary 2
It would seem that that ambiguous, ambivalent, and compendious word "kynde" is at the bottom of the bemusement and perplexity occasioned by Wyatt's famous lyric from the moment of its publication, and one would suppose that the puzzlement of the reader was part of Wyatt's intention. The simplest and most sensible reaction to the "kyndely" of line 20 is that it is, as Joost Daalder says, "ironic for unkindly, cruelly, as D's gentillye suggests." 1 But Daalder admits that it could mean "according to her nature," which is given to newfangleness; and that's fair enough too, and what she deserves is to be jilted in turn.
The more one thinks about it, though, the more it becomes clear that the lover who is being served kindly (strange reversal for the cavaliere servente) 2 is receiving payment in kind, in the sense of being hoist with his own petard, or being done by as he has done. For it is clear that in stanza one we have a picture of the ascendant young male playing the field, bidding and dismissing a series of playmates, allowing himself the luxury of newfangleness: he is free; they are tame ("in [his] daunger"). In the second stanza he allows the fittest of his mistresses not only to survive but to get a hold upon him, so that he is "caught," while she in her thin array and loose gown is free, and there is a note of triumph in her "how like you this?" In the third stanza (guilty now of "gentilnes" or tameness) the dwindling playboy, like the tamest of the playmates of stanza one, is found expendable and given his walking papers; and he can only hope that the whirligig of the wooing game will maintain its round and bring in its inevitable revenges after its own kind.
Besides describing the falling action which we have been observing (the rake with many mistresses, the rake with one mistress, the forsaken rake), the poem maintains an intertwining, give-and-take pattern of images of freedom and bondage. We have seen that the amorist, presented as keeper of tame creatures in stanza one, is very significantly "caught" in stanza two, and we can also see that the freedom he is accorded in stanza three is heavily ironic: he has "leve to goo." But the freedom of the going-concern in the love game "to use newfangilnes" is not without its own slavishness—a compulsive busy seeking after continual change. The hunter and hunted confusion is established in the first two lines with "fie" and "seke" and the ambiguous "stalking." The girls (or birds) of stanza one certainly receive ambiguous and ambivalent treatment, an ambiguity and ambivalence which is rounded off in the forsaking and letting go of stanza three, in which the lively huntress lets a jaded quarry go in favour of fresher game.

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2. Prothalamion - Edmund Spenser (1552-1599)
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1 CALM was the day, and through the trembling air
2 Sweet-breathing Zephyrus did softly play
3 A gentle spirit, that lightly did delay
4 Hot Titan's beams, which then did glister fair;
5 When I (whom sullen care,
6 Through discontent of my long fruitless stay
7 In prince's court, and expectation vain
8 Of idle hopes, which still do fly away
9 Like empty shadows, did afflict my brain),
10 Walk'd forth to ease my pain
11 Along the shore of silver-streaming Thames;
12 Whose rutty bank, the which his river hems,
13 Was painted all with variable flowers,
14 And all the meads adorn'd with dainty gems
15 Fit to deck maidens' bowers,
16 And crown their paramours,
17 Against the bridal day, which is not long:
18 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

19 There, in a meadow, by the river's side,
20 A flock of nymphs I chanced to espy,
21 All lovely daughters of the flood thereby,
22 With goodly greenish locks, all loose untied,
23 As each had been a bride;
24 And each one had a little wicker basket,
25 Made of fine twigs, entrailed curiously,
26 In which they gathered flowers to fill their flasket,
27 And with fine fingers cropt full feateously
28 The tender stalks on high.
29 Of every sort, which in that meadow grew,
30 They gathered some; the violet, pallid blue,
31 The little daisy, that at evening closes,
32 The virgin lily, and the primrose true,
33 With store of vermeil roses,
34 To deck their bridegrooms' posies
35 Against the bridal day, which was not long:
36 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

37 With that I saw two swans of goodly hue
38 Come softly swimming down along the Lee;
39 Two fairer birds I yet did never see;
40 The snow which doth the top of Pindus strew,
41 Did never whiter shew,
42 Nor Jove himself, when he a swan would be,
43 For love of Leda, whiter did appear;
44 Yet Leda was (they say) as white as he,
45 Yet not so white as these, nor nothing near;
46 So purely white they were,
47 That even the gentle stream, the which them bare,
48 Seem'd foul to them, and bad his billows spare
49 To wet their silken feathers, lest they might
50 Soil their fair plumes with water not so fair,
51 And mar their beauties bright,
52 That shone as heaven's light,
53 Against their bridal day, which was not long:
54 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

55 Eftsoons the nymphs, which now had flowers their fill,
56 Ran all in haste to see that silver brood,
57 As they came floating on the crystal flood;
58 Whom when they saw, they stood amazed still,
59 Their wond'ring eyes to fill;
60 Them seem'd they never saw a sight so fair,
61 Of fowls so lovely, that they sure did deem
62 Them heavenly born, or to be that same pair
63 Which through the sky draw Venus' silver team;
64 For sure they did not seem
65 To be begot of any earthly seed,
66 But rather angels, or of angels' breed;
67 Yet were they bred of Somers-heat, they say,
68 In sweetest season, when each flower and weed
69 The earth did fresh array;
70 So fresh they seem'd as day,
71 Even as their bridal day, which was not long:
72 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

73 Then forth they all out of their baskets drew
74 Great store of flowers, the honour of the field,
75 That to the sense did fragrant odours yield,
76 All which upon those goodly birds they threw
77 And all the waves did strew,
78 That like old Peneus' waters they did seem,
79 When down along by pleasant Tempe's shore,
80 Scatt'red with flowers, through Thessaly they stream,
81 That they appear through lilies' plenteous store,
82 Like a bride's chamber floor.
83 Two of those nymphs, meanwhile, two garlands bound
84 Of freshest flowers which in that mead they found,
85 The which presenting all in trim array,
86 Their snowy foreheads therewithal they crown'd,
87 Whilst one did sing this lay,
88 Prepar'd against that day,
89 Against their bridal day, which was not long:
90 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

91 "Ye gentle birds, the world's fair ornament
92 And heaven's glory, whom this happy hour
93 Doth lead unto your lovers' blissful bower,
94 Joy may you have, and gentle heart's content
95 Of your love's complement;
96 And let fair Venus, that is Queen of Love,
97 With her heart-quelling son upon you smile,
98 Whose smile, they say, hath virtue to remove
99 All love's dislike, and friendship's faulty guile
100 For ever to assoil.
101 Let endless Peace your steadfast hearts accord,
102 And blessed Plenty wait upon your board:
103 And let your bed with pleasures chaste abound,
104 That fruitful issue may to you afford,
105 Which may your foes confound,
106 And make your joys redound
107 Upon your bridal day, which is not long:
108 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song."

109 So ended she; and all the rest around
110 To her redoubled that her undersong,
111 Which said their bridal day should not be long;
112 And gentle Echo from the neighbour ground
113 Their accents did resound.
114 So forth those joyous birds did pass along,
115 Adown the Lee, that to them murmur'd low,
116 As he would speak, but that he lack'd a tongue,
117 Yet did by signs his glad affection show,
118 Making his stream run slow.
119 And all the fowl which in his flood did dwell
120 Gan flock about these twain, that did excel
121 The rest, so far as Cynthia doth shend
122 The lesser stars. So they, enranged well,
123 Did on those two attend,
124 And their best service lend
125 Against their wedding day, which was not long:
126 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

127 At length they all to merry London came,
128 To merry London, my most kindly nurse,
129 That to me gave this life's first native source,
130 Though from another place I take my name,
131 An house of ancient fame.
132 There when they came, whereas those bricky towers
133 The which on Thames' broad aged back do ride,
134 Where now the studious lawyers have their bowers,
135 There whilom wont the Templar Knights to bide,
136 Till they decay'd through pride:
137 Next whereunto there stands a stately place,
138 Where oft I gained gifts and goodly grace
139 Of that great lord, which therein wont to dwell,
140 Whose want too well now feels my friendless case:
141 But ah! here fits not well
142 Old woes, but joys, to tell
143 Against the bridal day, which is not long:
144 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

145 Yet therein now doth lodge a noble peer,
146 Great England's glory, and the world's wide wonder,
147 Whose dreadful name late through all Spain did thunder,
148 And Hercules' two pillars standing near
149 Did make to quake and fear:
150 Fair branch of honour, flower of chivalry,
151 That fillest England with thy triumph's fame,
152 Joy have thou of thy noble victory,
153 And endless happiness of thine own name
154 That promiseth the same;
155 That through thy prowess, and victorious arms,
156 Thy country may be freed from foreign harms;
157 And great Eliza's glorious name may ring
158 Through all the world, fill'd with thy wide alarms,
159 Which some brave Muse may sing
160 To ages following,
161 Upon the bridal day, which is not long:
162 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song.

163 From those high towers this noble lord issuing,
164 Like radiant Hesper, when his golden hair
165 In th' ocean billows he hath bathed fair,
166 Descended to the river's open viewing,
167 With a great train ensuing.
168 Above the rest were goodly to be seen
169 Two gentle knights of lovely face and feature,
170 Beseeming well the bower of any queen,
171 With gifts of wit, and ornaments of nature,
172 Fit for so goodly stature,
173 That like the twins of Jove they seem'd in sight,
174 Which deck the baldric of the heavens bright;
175 They two, forth pacing to the river's side,
176 Receiv'd those two fair brides, their love's delight;
177 Which, at th' appointed tide,
178 Each one did make his bride
179 Against their bridal day, which is not long:
180 Sweet Thames run softly, till I end my song

Notes

1] First published in 1596 with the following title: Prothalamion, Or a Spousall Verse made by Edm. Spenser in Honour of the Double Mariage of the two Honourable and Virtuous Ladies, the Ladie Elizabeth and the Ladie Katherine Somerset, Daughters to the Right Honourable the Earle of Worcester and espoused to the two worthie Gentlemen M. Henry Gifford, and M. William Peter, Esquyers. The marriage took place November 8, 1596. The word "prothalamion", formed by Spenser analogically from "epithalamion", means a song preceding the marriage ceremony.
5-9] "In the autumn (of 1596) he was with the court at Greenwich, still hopeful of preferment." (Dictionary of National Biography).
25] entrailéd. Twisted.
26] flasket. Long, shallow basket.
27] feateously. Deftly.
38] Lee. Meadowland. Hence the Thames Valley.
67] Somersheat. A pun on the name Somerset.
121] shend. Put to shame.
130] another place. Spenser claimed relationship with the Spensers of Althorp.
132] those bricky towers. The Temple, a group of buildings on the north bank of the Thames in London, originally the abode of the Knights Templars (a military and religious order, founded 1118, suppressed 1312), and occupied, since 1346, by a society of lawyers.
137-40] In November, 1596 Spenser was staying with the Earl of Essex, at Essex House, where he had lived in former years, while it belonged to Leicester.
139] that great lord. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (1532-1588).
145] a noble peer. Robert Devereux, second Earl of Essex (1567-1601), stepson of the Earl of Leicester and his successor in the Queen's favour.
147-49] An expedition led by Essex captured Cadiz, June 22, 1596.
148] Hercules' two pillars. Gibraltar and Jebel Musa (Apes' Hill); in classical geography, Calpe and Abyla, the twin rocks which guard the entrance to the Mediterranean. Several contradictory legends connect them with Hercules.
159] Muse. Poet.
164] Hesper. The planet Venus.
173] the twins of Jove. Castor and Pollux.
174] baldric. A belt crossing the shoulder and sustaining a sword or dagger. The reference here is to the zodiac.

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3. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
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Plot Summary
.......At midnight on the battlements of Elsinore castle in eastern Denmark, an officer named Bernardo arrives to relieve Francisco, another officer who has been standing guard in the frigid air during an uneventful watch. “Not a mouse stirring” (1. 1. 13) Francisco reports as he leaves. Two other men, Horatio and Marcellus, arrive a moment later. Marcellus inquires, “What, has this thing appeared again to-night?” (1. 1. 31).The “thing” is a ghost that Marcellus says has appeared twice on the battlements to him and Bernardo. Horatio doubts the story, believing the specter is a child of their imaginations.
.......While Bernardo attempts to convince Horatio of the truth of the tale, the apparition appears again–a ghost in the form of the recently deceased King Hamlet, outfitted in the armor he wore when warring against Norway and slaying its king, Fortinbras. Horatio questions the phantom. But just as quickly as it appeared, it disappears. Horatio, grown pale with fright, says, “This bodes some strange eruption to our state” (1. 1. 85). His words foreshadow all the tragic action to follow. The ghost reappears, then disappears again.
.......Prince Hamlet, the son of the late king, learned of the death of his father while studying at the University of Wittenberg in Germany. When he returns to Denmark to attend the funeral, grief smites him deeply. The king’s brother, Claudius, has assumed the throne, even though Hamlet has a claim on it as the son of the deceased king. In addition, he has married the late king’s widow, Gertrude–Hamlet’s mother–in little more than a month after old Hamlet died, a development that deeply distresses Hamlet. In a soliloquy, Hamlet expresses his opposition to the marriage, his loathing of Claudius, and his disappointment in his mother in his mother:
..............A little month, or ere those shoes were old
..............With which she follow'd my poor father's body,
..............Like Niobe1, all tears:–why she, even she–
..............O, God! a beast, that wants discourse of reason,
..............Would have mourn'd longer–married with my uncle,
..............My father's brother, but no more like my father
..............Than I to Hercules: within a month:
..............Ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears
..............Had left the flushing in her galled eyes,
..............She married. O, most wicked speed, to post
..............With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! (1. 2. 151-161)
The words “incestuous sheets” in Line 161 reflect the belief, prevalent in Europe at and before Shakespeare’s time, that marriage between in-laws–Claudius had been Gertrude’s brother-in-law before he married her–was a form of incest.
.......As a first priority as king, Claudius prepares to thwart an expected invasion of Norwegian troops under Prince Fortinbras, the son of the Norwegian king slain in battle years earlier by old King Hamlet. Fortinbras apparently has a double goal: to avenge the death of his father (old King Fortinbras) and to win back territory lost to the Danes.
.......In the meantime, Hamlet’s best friend Horatio tells the young prince the amazing story of the ghost. He says two guards, Bernardo and Marcellus, have reported seeing on two nights an apparition of old King Hamlet on the battlements of the royal castle. On the third night, Horatio says, he accompanied the guards and himself saw the apparition.
.......''I will watch to-night,'' Hamlet says (1. 2. 260).
.......Another young man at Elsinore–Laertes, son of the king's lord chamberlain, Polonius–is preparing to leave for France to study at the University of Paris. Before debarking, he gives advice to his sister, Ophelia, who has received the attentions of Hamlet from time to time, attentions that Ophelia apparently welcomes. Laertes advises her that Hamlet’s attentions are a passing fancy; he is merely dallying with her.
For Hamlet and the trifling of his favour,
Hold it a fashion and a toy in blood,
A violet in the youth of primy nature,
Forward, not permanent, sweet, not lasting,
The perfume and suppliance of a minute;
No more. (1. 3. 8-13)
In other words, Laertes says, Ophelia should be wary of Hamlet's courtesies and flirtations. They are, Laertes maintains, mere trifles that are sweet but not lasting–"The perfume and suppliance of a minute; No more." Laertes then receives parting advice from his father:
Neither a borrower nor a lender be;
For loan oft loses both itself and friend,
And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry.
This above all: to thine ownself be true,
And it must follow, as the night the day,
Thou canst not then be false to any man.
Farewell: my blessing season this in thee! (1. 3. 82-88)
.......After Laertes leaves and day yields to night, Hamlet meets on the battlements of the castle with Horatio, Marcellus, and Bernardo at his side. By and by, Hamlet sees the Ghost but is uncertain whether it is the spirit of his father or the devil in disguise:
Be thou a spirit of health or a goblin damn’d
Bring with thee airs from heaven or blasts from hell,
Be thy interests wicked or charitable,
Thou comest in such a questionable shape
That I will speak to thee. (1. 4. 46-50).
When Hamlet questions the Ghost, it says, “I am thy father’s spirit, / Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night” (1. 5. 16). The Ghost tells him to revenge a “foul and most unnatural murder” (1. 5. 31) committed by Claudius. According to the Ghost’s tale, Claudius poured a vial of poison extracted from a plant (probably henbane2, also called hemblane, ) into old King Hamlet’s ear while the king was asleep, robbing him, “of life, of crown, of queen” (1. 5. 83). Claudius had committed the murder when King Hamlet had sin on his soul, the better to send him to the fiery regions of purgatory3.
.......Hamlet makes Horatio, Bernardo, and Marcellus swear on the hilt of his sword (where the handle and a protective bar intersect, forming a cross suitable for oath-taking) never to reveal what they saw. While attempting to verify the ghost’s story, Hamlet tells the others he will pretend to be mad, putting on an “antic disposition” (1. 5. 194).
.......It is Ophelia, Hamlet's beloved, who first reports that Hamlet has been acting strangely. She tells her father, Polonius, the nosy lord chamberlain, that Hamlet had burst in upon her while she was sewing. His face white, his eyes crazed, he took her by the wrist, peered into her eyes, then left the room. Polonius runs to King Claudius and repeats Ophelia's report. Claudius suspects there is something sane and threatening behind Hamlet's strange behavior. So he directs two school acquaintances of Hamlet, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, to watch the prince to find out the truth.
.......When roving actors come to Elsinore to entertain, Hamlet engages them to stage a play, which he calls The Mousetrap. In the play, a throne-seeker uses poison to murder a king named Gonzago. Claudius's reaction to the play will reveal his guilt, Hamlet believes, “For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak / With most miraculous organ” (2. 2. 427-428)–and thus confirm that the ghost was indeed telling the truth.
.......Meanwhile, Fortinbras sends word that he will not make war on Denmark if King Claudius allows him to march through the country to invade Poland. Claudius agrees.
.......After Rosencrantz and Guildenstern fail to fathom the meaning of Hamlet's "madness," Claudius and Polonius secretly observe Hamlet conversing with Ophelia. During the conversation, Hamlet rejects and insults Ophelia as his "madness" apparently worsens. His words deeply wound her, and there is a question whether he is transferring to poor, frail Ophelia the loathing and anger he feels toward his mother for her marriage to Claudius.Claudius, unsure whether Hamlet pretends insanity to disguise a scheme or is really mad, decides to rid the court of his unsettling presence by sending him to England on a contrived political mission. There, while conducting the court’s business, he will be murdered.
.......While the actors present the play, they stage a murder in which an actor pours ''poison'' into the ear of another actor playing Gonzago. The scene so unnerves King Claudius that he rises and ends the play abruptly. His reaction convinces Hamlet of Claudius’s guilt: He killed Hamlet’s father; there can be no doubt of it.
.......Later, Queen Gertrude reproves Hamlet for upsetting Claudius by staging the play. Hamlet in his turn rebukes her for her hasty marriage. Polonius, meanwhile, has positioned himself out of sight behind a wall tapestry (called an arras) to eavesdrop. When Hamlet sees the tapestry move, he stabs through it and kills Polonius, thinking he is Claudius..After Hamlet discovers his fatal mistake, the ghost reappears to remind Hamlet of his duty. When Hamlet speaks with the apparition, Gertrude cannot see the ghost and concludes that her son is indeed insane. Later she tells Claudius that Hamlet, in a fit of madness, killed Polonius.
.......Claudius sends Hamlet to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, who carry sealed papers ordering Hamlet's execution after the ship's arrival. At sea, Hamlet discovers the papers in a sealed packet while Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are sleeping and writes a new commission ordering the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, then re-seals the papers and places them in the packet. The next day, pirates attack the ship, and Hamlet escapes and hitches a ride with them back to Denmark. When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive in England and present the sealed papers, they are executed.
.......Meantime, Ophelia, distraught over her father's death and the apparent loss of Hamlet’s love, drowns in a brook–at first floating until her clothing, heavy with water, pulls her down. She apparently committed suicide, or was her death an accident–or the work of a sinister hand?
.......After Hamlet meets up with Horatio, they pass through a cemetery where two men are digging a grave. The first gravedigger sings as he digs and throws out a skull. Shocked, Hamlet tells Horatio, “That skull had a tongue in it, and could sing once; how the knave jowls it to the ground, as if it were Cain’s jaw-bone, that did the first murder!” (5. 1. 34). The man continues to dig and throws out another skull. Hamlet says, “There’s another; why may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be his quiddities now, his quillets, his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? why does he suffer this rude knave now to knock him about . . . ?” (5. 1. 40). After Hamlet strikes up a conversation with the gravedigger, that latter tells him that the second skull was that of Yorick, old King Hamlet’s jester when Hamlet was a child. Holding the skull, Hamlet recites a short speech about Yorick that underscores Hamlet’s preoccupation with death.
.......A funeral procession approaches. Hamlet is unaware that the body being borne aloft is Ophelia’s. It is she who will be lowered into the grave. When Hamlet sees her face, and when Laertes sees the face of Hamlet, the two men grapple, tumbling into the grave. Laertes means to avenge the death of his father, Polonius, and his sister, Ophelia. Attendants part them, and Hamlet declares,
I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers
Could not, with all their quantity of love,
Make up my sum. (5. 1. 155-157)
.......Later, in secret, Laertes and Claudius plot against Hamlet and poison the tip of a sword Laertes is to use against Hamlet in a fencing match designed as an entertainment. For good measure, Claudius prepares poisoned wine he will offer Hamlet during the match. Osric, a courtier and messenger of the king, informs Hamlet of the details of the match–although, of course, Hamlet is unaware of the deadly plot against him.
.......During the competition, Hamlet performs brilliantly, and Claudius offers him the cup of wine. But Hamlet and Laertes fight on. Meanwhile, Gertrude takes the cup, telling Hamlet, “The queen carouses to thy fortune” (5. 1. 224) and, before the king can stop her, she drinks the wine. ....
Laertes grazes Hamlet with the poisoned rapier4 breaking his skin and envenoming his bloodstream. Swords wave and poke wildly, and the fencers drop their weapons and accidentally exchange them. Hamlet then wounds Laertes with the same poisoned rapier. Both men are bleeding. A short while later, the queen keels over. To divert attention from the drink and himself, Claudius says Gertrude has fainted from the sight of blood. But Gertrude, drawing her last breath before dying, says, “The drink, the drink; I am poison’d.”
.......Everyone now knows that Claudius had offered Hamlet poisoned wine.
.......Before Laertes dies, he reconciles with Hamlet and implicates Claudius in the scheme to undo Hamlet. Hamlet then runs Claudius through. As Hamlet lies mortally wounded, Prince Fortinbras arrives at Elsinore with his army after his conquest of Poland. Hamlet tells Horatio that he wishes the Crown of Denmark to pass to Fortinbras. Then Hamlet dies. Ambassadors from England arrive to report the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and Horatio announces that he will inform the world of the events leading up to the deaths of Hamlet and the others. While soldiers bear off the bodies in a solemn procession, canons fire a salute.
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Characters
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Protagonist: Hamlet
Antagonist: Claudius
Foils of Hamlet: Laertes, Fortinbras, Polonius
Hamlet: Son of a murdered Danish king (who was also named Hamlet) and nephew of the present king, Claudius. Hamlet suffers great mental anguish over the death of his father, the marriage of his mother to the suspected murderer (Claudius), and the clash between his moral sense and his desire for revenge against his father’s murderer. To ensnare the killer, Hamlet pretends madness. Some Shakespeare interpreters contend that he really does suffer a mental breakdown. Hamlet is highly intelligent and well liked by the citizens, although at times he can be petty and cruel.
Claudius: The new King of Denmark, Hamlet's uncle. He becomes king after Hamlet’s father, the previous king, is found dead in his orchard. Hamlet suspects that Claudius murdered him.
Gertrude: Queen of Denmark, Hamlet's mother, and widow of the murdered king. Her marriage to Claudius within two months after the late king’s funeral deeply disturbs Hamlet.
Ghost of Hamlet’s Father, old King Hamlet.
Polonius: Bootlicking Lord Chamberlain of King Claudius.
Ophelia: Daughter of Polonius. She loves Hamlet, but his pretended madness–during which he rejects her–and the death of her father trigger a pathological reaction in her.
Horatio: Hamlet’s best friend. Horatio never wavers in his loyalty to Hamlet. At the end of the play, he recites immortal lines: "Good night, sweet prince, / And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest!" (5. 2. 304-305).
Laertes: Son of Polonius, brother of Ophelia. Circumstances make him an enemy of Hamlet, and they duel to the death in a fencing match at the climax of the play. As a man who reacts to circumstances quickly, with a minimum of reflection on the meaning and possible outcome of his actions, Laertes contrasts sharply with the pensive and indecisive Hamlet and, thus, serves as his foil.
Rosencrantz, Guildenstern Courtiers and friends of Hamlet who attended school with him. They turn against him to act as spies for Claudius and agents in Claudius’s scheme to have Hamlet murdered in England. Hamlet quickly smells out their deception and treachery.
Marcellus, Bernardo: Officers who are the first to see the ghost of Hamlet’s father.
Francisco: Another officer.
Voltimand, Cornelius, Osric: Courtiers who bear messages for the king. Osric informs Hamlet of the fencing match arranged for him and Laertes.
Reynaldo: Servant of Polonius..
Fortinbras: Prince of Norway, who is on the march with an army. In battlefield combat (referred to in the play but not taking place during the play), old King Hamlet slew the father of Fortinbras and annexed Norwegian territory. Fortinbras seeks revenge.
Players: Actors who arrive at Elsinore to offer an entertainment. Hamlet directs one of them, called the First Player, to stage a drama called The Mouse-trap, about a throne-seeker who murders a king. Hamlet hopes the play will cause Claudius to react in a way that reveals his guilt as the murderer of old King Hamlet. As the play unfolds on a stage at Elsinore, the actors are referred to as the following:
........ Prologue: Actor presenting a one-sentence prologue to the play.
........ Player King: Actor portraying the king (whom Hamlet refers to as Gonzago, the Duke of Vienna).
........ Player Queen: Actor portraying the queen (whom Hamlet refers to as Baptista, the Duchess of Vienna).
........ Lucianus: Actor portraying the king's nephew and his murderer.
Clowns (Gravediggers): Two men who dig Ophelia’s grave.
Yorick: Court jester of old King Hamlet. He amused and looked after Hamlet when the latter was a child. Yorick is dead during the play, but his skull–which a gravedigger exhumes in Act V, Scene I–arouses old memories in Hamlet that provide a glimpse of his childhood. The skull also helps to develop Hamlet’s morbid preoccupation with death.
Minor Characters: Captain, English ambassadors, lords, ladies, officers, soldiers, sailors, messengers, attendants.
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Settings
The main setting is Elsinore Castle in eastern Denmark, on the Øresund strait separating the Danish island of Sjælland (Zealand) from the Swedish province of Skåne and linking the Baltic Sea in the south to the Kattegat Strait in the north. Elsinore is a real town. Its Danish name is Helsingør. In Shakespeare’s time, Elsinore was an extremely important port that fattened its coffers by charging a toll for ship passage through the Øresund strait (which means “The Sound”). Modern Elsinore, or Helsingør, is directly west of a Swedish city with a similar name, Helsingborg (or Hälsingborg). Within the city limits of Elsinore is Kronborg Castle, said to be the model for the Elsinore Castle of Shakespeare’s play. Construction on the castle began in 1574, when Shakespeare was ten, and ended in 1585, when Shakespeare was twenty-one. It is believed that actors known to Shakespeare performed at Kronborg Castle. Other settings in Hamlet are a plain in Denmark, near Elsinore, and a churchyard near Elsinore. Offstage action in the play (referred to in dialogue) takes place on a ship bound for England from Denmark on which Hamlet replaces instructions to execute him (see the plot summary below) with instructions to execute his traitorous companions, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and on a pirate ship that returns him to Denmark.
Themes.
Hesitation: Hamlet has an obligation to avenge his father’s murder, according to the customs of his time. But he also has an obligation to abide by the moral law, which dictates, “Thou shalt not kill.” Consequently, Hamlet has great difficulty deciding what to do and, thus, hesitates to take decisive action. In his famous critiques of Shakespeare’s works, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) has written:
He [Hamlet] is all dispatch and resolution as far as words and present intentions are concerned, but all hesitation and irresolution when called upon to carry his words and intentions into effect; so that, resolving to do everything, he does nothing. He is full of purpose but void of that quality of mind which accomplishes purpose. . . . Shakespeare wished to impress upon us the truth that action is the chief end of existence–that no faculties of intellect, however brilliant, can be considered valuable, or indeed otherwise than as misfortunes, if they withdraw us from or rend us repugnant to action, and lead us to think and think of doing until the time has elapsed when we can do anything effectually.
Inherited Sin and Corruption: Humans are fallen creatures, victims of the devil’s trickery as described in Genesis. Allusions or direct references to Adam, the Garden of Eden, and original sin occur throughout the play. In the first act, Shakespeare discloses that King Hamlet died in an orchard (Garden of Eden) from the bite of a serpent (Claudius). Later, Hamlet alludes to the burdens imposed by original sin when he says, in his famous “To be, or not to be” soliloquy, that the “flesh is heir to” tribulation in the form of “heart-ache” and a “thousand natural shocks” (3. 1. 72-73). In the third scene of the same act, Claudius compares himself with the biblical Cain. In Genesis, Cain, the first son of Adam and Eve, kills his brother, Abel, the second son, after God accepts Abel’s sacrifice but not Cain’s. Like Cain, Claudius kills his brother, old King Hamlet. Claudius recognizes his Cain-like crime when he says:
O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven;
It hath the primal eldest curse5 upon ’t,
A brother’s murder. (3. 3. 42-44)
In Act V, the second gravedigger tells the first gravedigger that Ophelia, who apparently committed suicide, would not receive a Christian burial if she were a commoner instead of a noble. In his reply, the first gravedigger refers directly to Adam: "Why, there thou sayest: and the more pity that great folk should have countenance in this world to drown or hang themselves more than their even Christian. Come, my spade. There is no ancient gentlemen but gardeners, ditchers, and grave-makers: they hold up Adam’s profession" (5. 1. 13). After the gravedigger tosses Yorick’s skull to Hamlet, the prince observes: “That skull had a tongue in it, and could sing once: how the knave jowls it to the ground, as if it were Cain’s jaw-bone, that did the first murder!” (5. 1. 34). All of these references to Genesis seem to suggest that Hamlet is a kind of Everyman who inherits “the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune”–that is, the effects of original sin.
Sons Seeking Revenge: Young Fortinbras seeks revenge against Elsinore because King Hamlet had killed the father of Fortinbras, King Fortinbras. Hamlet seeks to avenge the murder of his father, King Hamlet, by Claudius, the king’s brother and Hamlet’s uncle. Laertes seeks revenge against Hamlet for killing his father, Polonius, the lord chamberlain.
Deception: Deception makes up a major motif in Hamlet. On the one hand, Claudius conceals his murder of Hamlet’s father. On the other, Hamlet conceals his knowledge of the murder. He also wonders whether the Ghost is deceiving him, pretending to be old King Hamlet when he is really a devil. Polonius secretly tattles on Hamlet to Claudius. Hamlet feigns madness. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern pretend to have Hamlet’s best interests at heart while attempting to carry out Claudius’s scheme to kill Hamlet. After that scheme fails, Claudius and Laertes connive to kill Hamlet during the fencing match. However, that scheme also goes awry when Gertrude drinks from a poisoned cup prepared for Hamlet.
Ambition: Claudius so covets the throne that he murders his own brother, King Hamlet, to win it. In this respect he is like Macbeth and Richard III in other Shakespeare plays, who also murder their way to the Crown. Whether Claudius’s ambition to be king was stronger than his desire to marry Gertrude is arguable, but both were factors, as he admits to himself in Act III, Scene III, when he reflects on his guilt: “I am still possessed / Of those effects for which I did the murder, / My crown, mine own ambition and my queen. . .” (60-61).
Loyalty: Hamlet is loyal to his father’s memory, as is Laertes to the memory of his father, Polonius, and his sister, Ophelia. Gertrude is torn between loyalty to Claudius and Hamlet. Horatio remains loyal to Hamlet to the end. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, school pals of Hamlet, betray Hamlet and spy on him.
Mischance, Coincidence, and Serendipity: Hamlet “just happens” to kill Polonius. Pirates “just happen” to rescue Hamlet. Hamlet “just happens” to come across Ophelia’s funeral upon his return to Denmark. Hamlet and Laertes “just happen” to exchange swords–one of them with a poisoned tip–in their duel. Gertrude “just happens” to drink from a poisoned cup meant for Hamlet. Fate, or unabashed plot contrivance, works its wonders in this Shakespeare play.
Christ-like Hamlet: Hamlet is like Christ, George Bernard Shaw has observed, in that he struggles against the old order, which requires an eye for and eye, as Christ did.
Madness: Madness, pretended or real, wears the mask of sanity. In his attempt to prove Claudius’s guilt, Hamlet puts on an “antic disposition”–that is, he pretends madness. But is he really mentally unbalanced? Perhaps.
Serpentine Satan: Imagery throughout the play dwells on Satan’s toxic influence on Elsinore and its inhabitants. Particularly striking are the snake metaphors. It is the venom of a serpent (in the person of Claudius) that kills old King Hamlet. Claudius, remember, had poured poison into the king’s ear as reported by the Ghost of the old king: While “sleeping in mine orchard,” the Ghost says, “A serpent stung me” (1. 5. 42-43). It is a sword–a steel snake, as it were–that kills Polonius, Hamlet, Laertes, and Claudius. (The sword that kills Hamlet and Laertes is tipped with poison.) Moreover, it is a poisoned drink that kills Gertrude. As for Ophelia, it is poisoned words that kill her. The word poison and its forms (such as poisons, poisoner, and poisoning) occur thirteen times in the play. Serpent occurs twice, venom or envenom six times, devil nine times, and hell or hellish eleven times. Garden (as a symbol for the Garden of Eden) or gardener occurs three times. Adam occurs twice.
Ambiguous Spirit World: In Shakespeare’s time, ghosts were thought by some people to be devils masquerading as dead loved ones. Their purpose was to win souls for Satan. It is understandable, then, that Hamlet is reluctant at first to assume that the Ghost on the castle battlements is really the spirit of his father. Hamlet acknowledges his doubt at the end of Act II:
The spirit that I have seen
May be the devil: and the devil hath power
To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and perhaps
Out of my weakness and my melancholy,
As he is very potent with such spirits,
Abuses me to damn me. (2. 2. 433-438)
Empty Existence: Time and again, Hamlet bemoans the uselessness and emptiness of life. He would kill himself if his conscience would let him. He considers taking his life, as his “To be, or not to be” soliloquy” reveals. But as a Roman Catholic, he cannot go against the tenets of his religion, which forbids suicide.
Key Dates and Sources
Date Written: 1599-1601
Publication Dates: (1) 1603 as part of the First Quarto, a pirated, unreliable version; (2) 1604-1605 as part of the Second Quarto; (3) 1623 as part of the First Folio, an authorized collection of all of Shakespeare's plays except those of questionable authorship.
Probable Main Sources: Third Book of Gesta Danorum (The Deeds of the Danes), a Latin work by Saxo Grammaticus (1150?-1220?). Christiern Pedersen (1480-1554), a Danish humanist writer, published the first edition of Gesta Danorum in Paris in 1514 but with a different title: Historia Danica. Saxo was the secretary of Absalon (1128?-1201), archbishop of Lund–once under the control of Denmark but now part of Sweden–from 1177 or 1178 to 1201. He wrote Gesta Danorum at Absalon's request.It recounts the stories of 60 kings of Danish lands in Books 1 to 9 of the 16-volume work. Book 3 tells the tale of Amleth (the model for Hamlet) as he avenges the murder of his father, Horwendil, at the hands of Feng. In Grammaticus' tale, Amleth lives on and becomes King of Jutland. It is possible that Saxo Grammaticus based his tale on an Icelandic saga called Amlói. The Amleth tale was retold in Histoires Tragiques, by François de Belleforest. Shakespeare may also have drawn upon a lost play by Thomas Kyd (1558-1594), referred to as Ur-Hamlet (the prefix ur means original) and a surviving Kyd play, The Spanish Tragedy (also spelled The Spanish Tragedie), in which the presentation of the character Hieronimo could have inspired Shakespeare's probing analysis of Hamlet. Regarding Ur-Hamlet, Shakespeare critic and scholar Peter Alexander–editor of a popular edition of the complete works of Shakespeare, first published in 1951–maintains that Ur-Hamlet was actually written by Shakespeare between 1587 and 1589 as a draft of the final version. Shakespeare critic Harold Bloom supports this contention in a 2003 book entitled Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (Riverhead Books, New York, Page 124) but offers little hard evidence to buttress his position. Possible additional sources for Hamlet, Prince of Denmark are a 10th Century Celtic tale about a warrior named Amhlaide and an 11th Century Persian tale from The Book of Kings (Shah-nameh), by Abu Ol-qasem Mansur.
Type of Work
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is a tragedy. A tragedy is a dignified work in which the main character undergoes a struggle and suffers a downfall. In Shakespeare's plays, the main character of a tragedy is usually a person of noble heritage. A flaw in his personality, sometimes abetted by fate, brings about his downfall. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is also sometimes characterized as a revenge play in the tradition of the Roman playwright Seneca (4 B.C.-65 A.D.) .
Study Questions
• Hamlet faces a moral dilemma. On the one hand, the ghost of his father urges him to gain revenge by killing Claudius. On the other hand, Hamlet’s conscience tells him that killing is wrong. After all, he is a college boy who has been exposed to the teachings of theologians, philosophers and other thinkers who condemn revenge. What was the attitude of people in Hamlet’s day–as many as a thousand years ago–toward law and order and revenge?
• Another dilemma Hamlet faces is whether the ghost is trustworthy. Is it really the ghost of his father? Is it a demon? Is there really a ghost at all? What was the attitude of people in Shakespeare’s time–he was born in 1564 and died in 1616–toward the supernatural: ghosts, witches, etc.? See Essay Topic 2 below for additional information.
• In Act I, Scene II, Claudius refers to Gertrude as "our sometime sister." What does he mean by this phrase?
• Does Hamlet himself covet the throne? Why didn't he–the son of old King Hamlet–inherit the throne? (Look for a clue in these lines: He that hath kill'd my king and whored my mother, / Popp'd in between the election and my hopes, (Act V, Scene II, Hamlet speaking to Horatio). (4) The play is full of deceit. Who attempts to deceive whom?
• Before he leaves to study at the University of Paris (Act I, Scene III), Laertes warns his sister, Ophelia, to be wary of Hamlet's attentions toward her, saying Hamlet regards her as little more than a "toy." Is it possible that Laertes is right, that Hamlet really is not serious about Ophelia?
• Hamlet is angry because his mother married Claudius so soon after the death of old King Hamlet. Was Gertrude having an affair with Claudius before her husband’s death? Was she in on the murder? Does Hamlet suffer from an Oedipus complex?
• Hamlet puts on an “antic disposition”–that is, he pretends to be insane. But is he, in fact, insane or mentally unstable?
• Does Ophelia go insane? Does she commit suicide?
• What circumstances do Hamlet, Laertes, and Fortinbras have in common? Do they share similar character traits?
• In ancient and medieval times, ambitious men often murdered their way to the throne, as Claudius did in Hamlet. Shakespeare was right on the mark in Henry IV Part II when he wrote, “Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown.” In other words, a ruler often had to sleep with one eye open to watch for attempts on his life. What were some of the methods monarchs used to protect themselves or uncover plots against them? For example, did they employ spies or food tasters? Did they stay in the company of trusted guards?
Essay Topics
• Argue that Elsinore represents the Garden of Eden after the serpent (Satan) does his dirty work. In your argument, point out that the reason Elsinore is corrupt is that it yielded to–and continues to yield to–diabolical influence. Throughout the play, Shakespeare uses imagery that appears to support this view. For example, old King Hamlet is poisoned in an Eden-like setting by a “serpent” (Claudius). Later, Elsinore becomes a place of darkness and deception; Hamlet is urged by a ghost (who could be the devil) to commit a sin, revenge. Hamlet’s old friends, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, turn against him. While researching the play, notice the many references to the devil, as in this line spoken by Hamlet to Gertrude in Act 3, Scene 4: What devil was’t that thus hath cozen’d you at hoodman blind? In addition, consider the many references to hell, as in this line spoken by Ophelia about Hamlet in Act 2, Scene 1: As if he had been loosed out of hell / To speak of horrors,–he comes before me.
• Write an informative essay explaining the attitude of people in Shakespeare’s time toward supernatural phenomena and the occult. As part of this assignment, you may wish to consider another Shakespeare play, Macbeth, in which three witches play important roles. In Shakespeare's time, many people believed in the power of witches. One was King James I, who succeeded Queen Elizabeth I as the ruler of England. In 1591, when he was King of Scotland during Elizabeth’s reign, a group of witches and sorcerers attempted to murder him. Their trial and testimony convinced him that they were agents of evil. Thereafter, he studied the occult and wrote a book called Daemonologie (Demonology), published in 1597. This book–and an earlier one called Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches' Hammer, 1486), describing the demonic rites of witches–helped inflame people against practitioners of sorcery.
• Probe Hamlet’s mind. Get inside it and explore every niche and crevice. Then, attempt to explain why he acts as he does. True, his behavior is in large part a reaction to his father’s death and his mother’s marriage to Claudius. But what else bothers Hamlet? Is he angry because he himself did not succeed to the throne? Does the ghost cause him to dwell morbidly on the afterlife? Does he suddenly hate all women because of what his mother did?
• Write an essay entitled “Hamlet’s Deepest Secrets.” In this essay, argue that Hamlet harbors disturbing secrets, such as the following: (1) as a child, he was neglected by King Hamlet and Gertrude and, therefore, grew up resenting them; (2) he believes he might really be the child of Claudius; and (3) he is sexually attracted to his mother (Oedipus complex). Evidence appears in the play to support–but not prove–such theories.
• To what extent does the main setting, Elsinore Castle, contribute to the atmosphere of the play? To what extent does this setting affect the mindset of Hamlet and/or other characters? .
Climax

The climax of a play or another narrative work, such as a short story or a novel, can be defined as (1) the turning point at which the conflict begins to resolve itself for better or worse, or as (2) the final and most exciting event in a series of events. The climax in Hamlet occurs, according to the first definition, when Hamlet satisfies himself that Claudius is indeed the murderer of his father–thanks to Claudius's guilty response to the players' enactment of The Mouse-trap (The Murder of Gonzago). According to the second definition, the climax occurs in the final act during and just after the sword fight, when Laertes, Gertrude, Claudius, and Hamlet die.
How Old Is Hamlet?
Early in the play, Shakespeare suggests that Hamlet is in his teens or perhaps about twenty. But in the churchyard in Act V, Scene I, the first gravedigger–holding up the skull of the late King Hamlet’s jester, Yorick, who was Hamlet’s childhood baby sitter–says that “this skull hath lain you i’ the earth three-and-twenty years” (5. 1. 73) Hamlet’s age when Yorick died was about seven. Do the math and you discover that Hamlet should be about thirty . What’s going on? Probably this: In a quarto edition of the play published in the early 1600s, the gravedigger says Yorick has been dead for only twelve years, which would make Hamlet about nineteen. Here is the line spoken by the gravedigger in that edition: “Here’s a scull [skull] hath bin here this dozen yeare [year].” However, in the 1623 folio edition of the play, Yorick has been dead for twenty-three years, as stated by the gravedigger. Apparently, the eleven-year discrepancy between the two editions was the result of an editing error. What it all means is that Hamlet is only nineteen or twenty.
The Women in Hamlet–Shrinking Violets
Shakespeare’s plays are well populated with strong women who lead or influence men. Examples are Portia (The Merchant of Venice), Cleopatra (Antony and Cleopatra), Volumnia (Coriolanus), Queen Elinor and Constance (King John), and Beatrice (Much Ado About Nothing). However, in Hamlet, Gertrude and Ophelia are both weaklings who are dominated by men. In Act I, Scene II, Hamlet, deeply disturbed that his mother (Gertrude) has married Claudius a short time after the death of old King Hamlet, says, “Frailty, thy name is woman!” (150). Hamlet well realizes that fickle Gertrude wants, needs, requires marriage–impropriety notwithstanding–to satisfy her desire for attention. As the new Mrs. Claudius, she is totally submissive to the king's will; to offer an original thought that might offend him is out of the question. Ophelia also keeps her place. Like Gertrude, she is totally dependent on a male–in her case, her father. Even though she loves Hamlet, she agrees to help her father spy on Hamlet. When Laertes returns to Elsinore from France, she says, “I would give you some violets, but they withered all when my father died.” In other words, Ophelia herself withered; her spirit died.
The Meaning of "To be, or not to be"
Hamlet’s “To be, or not to be” soliloquy (3. 1. 66) is probably the most famous passage in English drama–and may well be the most quoted. Its fame lies partly in the attention it receives from the endless debates it has generated about what it means. It is currently fashionable to oppose the traditional view that the passage is a deliberation in which Hamlet is trying to decide whether to commit suicide. Anti-suicide champions argue that Hamlet is really deliberating what course of action to take–or not to take–to ravel his sleeve of woe while retaining life and limb. Which view is right? Probably the traditional view–that Hamlet is contemplating hara-kiri with his bare bodkin. However, because Shakespeare carried ambiguity to the extreme in this passage instead of speaking his mind plainly, there is plenty of room to argue otherwise. Leading his readers through the tangled dendrites in Hamlet’s cerebrum, Shakespeare bewilders his audience. Admittedly, though, it is jolly good fun to try to solve the passage. In the end, though, it appears that Hamlet is indeed considering suicide in this passage.
Female Hamlet
About 20 centuries before the birth of Shakespeare, the Greek playwright Sophocles (circa 497-406 B.C.) completed one of the finest plays in history, Electra, about a young woman from Greek myth who resembles Hamlet in temperament and who struggles against circumstances almost identical to Hamlet’s. Her father, King Agamemnon, had been murdered by her mother, Clytemnestra, and her lover, Aegisthus, who succeeds to the throne. (Hamlet’s father, old King Hamlet, was murdered by Claudius, who succeeds to the throne and marries the late king’s wife–Hamlet’s mother–Gertrude.) Like Hamlet, Electra seeks to avenge her father’s death. But in plotting the deed with her brother, Orestes, she suffers deep anguish, like Hamlet, marked by bouts of melancholy. At times Hamlet seems a carbon copy of Electra. There is no evidence suggesting that Shakespeare used Sophocles as a source for Hamlet, but it would be no great surprise if a historical document turned up suggesting that he did.
What's in a Name?
The first syllable of Hamlet's name appears to derive from a German word, hamm, meaning enclosed area. Claudius, the name of King Hamlet's murderer, derives from the Latin word claudus, meaning lame. In one sense, Claudius is indeed lame. His evil deeds hamstring him, making him incapable of ruling Elsinore while Hamlet is on the prowl. The origin of the name Polonius, Claudius's lord chamberlain, is unclear; however, the first three letters could well refer to his duplicitous and bootlicking style of politics. Horatio, the name of Hamlet's loyal friend, is of Latin origin and may well refer to the Roman poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus, known as Horace, whose major themes include love and friendship. Fortinbras, the level-headed Norwegian prince who arrives in Elsinore at the end of the play to take command and bring stability, may be so-named to suggest strength or "strong-arm" (Latin, fortis: strong; French, bras: arm). Gertrude, the name of Hamlet's mother, who is Claudius's queen, means in old German spear (Ger) and dear (Trut). Gertrude, of course, wounds Hamlet by marrying Claudius (hence, Ger) but remains special to him as his mother (hence, Trut).
Shakespeare's Digression on the War of the Theaters
Between 1599 and 1600, two companies of boy actors–Paul’s Boys and the Children of the Chapel–gained an enthusiastic following in London. In fact, so popular did the boys become that they attracted large numbers of theatergoers away from adult acting companies. But the boy companies were rivals not only of their adult counterparts but also of each other. Ben Jonson, the chief playwright for the Children of the Chapel, despised the chief playwright for Paul’s Boys, John Marston. They lambasted each other in allusions in their plays, precipitating a “war of the theaters.” In Act II, Scene II, of Hamlet, Shakespeare comments on the fascination with the boy actors after a company of adult actors (tragedians) arrives at Elsinore to stage an entertainment–actors whom Hamlet had already seen in stage plays. When Hamlet asks Rosencrantz whether these adult actors remain as popular as ever, Rosencrantz says no. Here is the dialogue:
HAMLET Do they [the arriving adult actors] hold the same
estimation they did when I was in the city? are they
so followed?
ROSENCRANTZ No, indeed, are they not.
HAMLET How comes it? do they grow rusty?
ROSENCRANTZ Nay, their endeavour
keeps in the wonted pace: but there is, sir,
an aery of children, little eyases,.............................................[aery: aerie, nest of bird of prey; eyases: baby birds, baby hawks]
that cry out on the top of question, and are most.....................[top of the question: top of the voice, top of news on the theater war]
tyrannically clapped for't: these are now the
fashion, and so berattle the common stages–so they...............[berattle: misuse, pervert, take over]
call them--that many wearing rapiers are afraid of
goose-quills and dare scarce come thither...............................[goose-quills: writing instruments]
HAMLET What, are they children? who maintains 'em?
how are they escoted? Will they pursue the quality no...............[escoted: paid, reimbursed]
longer than they can sing? will they not say
afterwards, if they should grow themselves to common
players--as it is most like, if their means are no
better--their writers do them wrong, to make them
exclaim against their own succession?
ROSENCRANTZ 'Faith, there has been much to do on
both sides; and the nation holds it no sin to tarre them to..........[tarre: goad, prod, spur]
controversy: there was, for a while, no money bid
for argument, unless the poet and the player went to
cuffs in the question.
HAMLET Is't possible?
GUILDENSTERN O, there has been much throwing about of brains.
HAMLET Do the boys carry it away?
ROSENCRANTZ Ay, that they do, my lord; Hercules
and his load too.....................[Hercules: Hercules carrying the world on his shoulders, a symbol of the Globe Theatre]

What Was a Castle?
Most of the scenes in Hamlet are set in Elsinore Castle. A castle was a walled fortress of a king or lord. The word castle is derived from the Latin castellum, meaning a fortified place. Generally, a castle was situated on an eminence (a piece of high ground) that had formed naturally or was constructed by laborers. High ground constructed by laborers was called a motte (French for mound); the motte may have been 100 to 200 feet wide and 40 to 80 feet high. The area inside the castle wall was called the bailey. Some castles had several walls, with smaller circles within a larger circle or smaller squares within a larger square. The outer wall of a castle was usually topped with a battlement, a protective barrier with spaced openings through which defenders could shoot arrows at attackers. This wall sometimes was surrounded by a water-filled ditch called a moat, a defensive barrier to prevent the advance of soldiers, horses and war machines. At the main entrance was a drawbridge, which could be raised to prevent entry. Behind the drawbridge was a portcullis [port KUL is], or iron gate, which could be lowered to further secure the castle. Within the castle was a tower, or keep, to which castle residents could withdraw if an enemy breached the portcullis and other defenses. Over the entrance of many castles was a projecting gallery with machicolations [muh CHIK uh LAY shuns], openings in the floor through which defenders could drop hot liquids or stones on attackers. In the living quarters of a castle, the king and his family dined in a great hall on an elevated platform called a dais [DAY is], and they slept in a chamber called a solar. The age of castles ended after the development of gunpowder and artillery fire enabled armies to breach thick castle walls instead of climbing over them.
Why Claudius, Not Hamlet, Became King of Denmark
.......Keen readers and audiences often ask why Claudius acceded to the throne in Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Should not the crown have passed to the dead king’s son, Prince Hamlet?
.......Not necessarily. In Denmark, the setting of the play, an elective monarchy held sway until 1660, when a hereditary monarchy replaced it. Therefore, Shakespeare’s fictional Hamlet, based on a legendary Dane of the Middle Ages, could not claim the crown as a birthright.
.......In an elective monarchy, court officials–noblemen in high standing–selected the new king by vote. The son of a king was, to be sure, the prime candidate for the royal chair, and usually he won it. But the voting nobles had the right to reject him in favor of another candidate. And that was precisely what happened in fictional Elsinore. The nobles approved the king’s brother, Claudius. In a hereditary monarchy, the king’s oldest son automatically ascended the throne when his father died. But of course Danish laws do not explain why the nobles chose Claudius over Hamlet. Shakespeare offers no explanation of their vote. However, in Act V, Hamlet refers to the election of Claudius, saying, “He that hath kill’d my king and whor’d my mother, / Popp’d in between the election and my hopes” (5. 2. 71-72). These lines appear in a passage in which Hamlet–conversing with his best friend, Horatio–is discussing Claudius’s murder plot against him and his moral right to kill Claudius. The words “my hopes” may signify that Hamlet expected to succeed his father. In the same scene of the same act, Hamlet–dying from the wound inflicted by Laertes’ poisoned-tip sword–again refers to the Denmark election system when he says Fortinbras should be the new king: “But I do prophesy the election lights / On Fortinbras: he has my dying voice” (5. 2. 300-301).
.......That Hamlet did not gain accession after the murder of his father could have been due to one or all of the following reasons: (1) Claudius actively campaigned for the kingship, winning votes by promising political favors. (2) Gertrude, eager to remarry and remain queen, campaigned on his behalf. (3) The nobles perceived Hamlet as too young and callow–and perhaps more likely to support the views of the common people instead of their views–and thus denied him succession.
.......In the tale on which Shakespeare based Hamlet–Amleth, a Latin work by Saxo Grammaticus (1150?-1220?)–Feng (the character after whom Shakespeare modeled Claudius) murders his brother, King Horwendil, out of jealousy. The opening paragraph of Amleth explains the cause of the jealousy:
Horwendil, King of Denmark, married Gurutha, the daughter of Rorik, and she bore him a son, whom they named Amleth. Horwendil's good fortune stung his brother Feng with jealousy, so that the latter resolved treacherously to waylay his brother, thus showing that goodness is not safe even from those of a man's own house. And behold when a chance came to murder him, his bloody hand sated the deadly passion of his soul.–(Eton, Oliver, trans. The Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus. London: David Nutt, 1894.)
.......The Amleth tale also says Feng gained favor with the nobles by telling lies: "Nor did his smooth words fail in their intent; for at courts, where fools are sometimes favored and backbiters preferred, a lie lacks not credit" (Eton).
.......Throughout its history, Denmark has had three monarchical systems:
.......First: In 940, Harald Bluetooth became the first king of a unified Denmark under an elective system requiring the monarch to sign a charter guaranteeing a division of power between the king and the people.
.......Second: In 1660, Denmark adopted absolutism, granting the king full power, under a hereditary system conferring the right of succession on the oldest son. In 1665, a royal edict affirmed the hereditary system under the principle of primogeniture, a legal term referring to the right of the oldest son to inherit his father’s property.
.......Third: In 1849, Denmark abandoned its absolutist monarchy in favor of a constitutional monarchy that invested government power mainly in the people’s representatives while retaining the king as a ceremonial figure. In 1953, Denmark granted women the right to accede to the throne.
.
Hamlet, Oedipus, and Freud

.......In an 1899 book entitled Die Traumdeutung (Interpretation of Dreams) Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis, introduced the term Oedipus complex. This term describes a psychological stage of development in which a male child desires sexual relations with his mother or a female child desires sexual relations with her father. The child also exhibits hostility toward the parent of the same sex. In normal development, a child outgrows this desire. However, in abnormal development, a child may retain his or her sexual fixation on the parent of the opposite sex.
.......After Freud coined the term Oedipus complex, Shakespeare scholars noted that Hamlet exhibits the symptoms of this condition in his relationship with his mother, Gertrude, and stepfather-uncle, Claudius. In a soliloquy in Act I, Scene II, Hamlet condemns Claudius as a “satyr” (144) and agonizes over his mother’s hasty marriage to him, saying, “O! most wicked speed, to post / With such dexterity to incestuous sheets!” (160). Ample evidence exists elsewhere in the play to support the Freudian interpretation of Hamlet’s character while buttressing the view that Hamlet is mentally deranged.
.......In coining his term, Freud drew upon the story of Oedipus in Greek mythology. Here is the story, in brief:
.......An oracle warns King Laius of Thebes that his wife, Jocasta, will bear a son who will one day kill him. After Jocasta gives birth to a boy, Laius acts to defeat the prophecy. First, he drives a spike through the child's feet, then takes him to Mount Cithaeron and orders a shepherd to kill him. But the shepherd, taking pity on the baby, spares him after tying him to a tree. A peasant finds the baby and gives him to a childless couple–Polybus (also Polybius), King of Corinth, and his wife, Periboea (also Merope). They name the boy Oedipus (meaning swelled foot) and raise him to manhood.
.......One day, when Oedipus visits the oracle at Delphi, the oracle tells Oedipus that a time will come when he slays his father and marries his mother. Horrified, Oedipus later strikes out from Corinth. He does not want to live anywhere near his beloved parents, Polybus and Periboea, lest a trick of fate cause him to be the instrument of their demise. What he does not know, of course, is that Polybus and Periboea are not his real parents.
.......On the road to Thebes, which leads away from Corinth, Oedipus encounters his real father Laius, whom he does not recognize, and several attendants. Laius, of course, does not recognize Oedipus either. Oedipus and Laius quarrel over a triviality–who has the right of way. The quarrel leads to violence, and Oedipus kills Laius and four of his attendants.
.......Outside Thebes, Oedipus encounters the Sphinx, a winged lion with the head of a woman. The grotesque creature has killed many Thebans because they could not answer her riddle: What travels on four feet in the morning, two at midday, and three in evening? Consequently, the city lives in great terror. No one can enter or leave the city.
.......When Oedipus approaches the Sphinx, the beast poses the riddle. Oedipus, quick of mind, spits back the right answer: man. Here is the explanation: As an infant in the morning of life, a human being crawls on all fours; as an adult in the midday of life, he walks upright on two legs; as an old man in the evening of life, he walks on three legs, including a cane.
.......Surprised and outraged, the Sphinx kills herself. Jubilant The bans then offer this newcomer the throne of Thebes. Oedipus accepts it and marries its widowed queen, Jocasta. Jocasta is, of course, the mother of Oedipus, although no one in Thebes becomes aware of this fact until much later. Thus, the oracle's prophecy to Laius and Oedipus is fulfilled.
.......Hamlet, of course, does not marry his mother. But, according to Freudian interpreters of the play, he does desire her–at least subconsciously. What is more, he solves a riddle of sorts, a homicide case, and kills his father–that is, stepfather. However, unlike Oedipus, Hamlet does not live on to anguish over the past.
Notes
1. Niobe: In Greek mythology, Niobe had bragged to the goddess Leto that she had six sons and six daughters. Leto had only two children, the god ....Apollo and the goddess Diana (Greek: Artemis). Because of Niobe’s boastfulness, Apollo killed her sons, Diana killed her daughters, and Jupiter ....(Greek: Zeus) turned her into a mass of stone on a mountain in present-day Turkey. The block of stone cried tears ceaselessly as Niobe wept for ....her dead children.
2. Henbane (Hemblane): Poisonous plant of the nightshade family that is native to Great Britain as well as to the central and southern European ....continent and to western Asia.
3. Purgatory: In Roman Catholic theology, a place where the souls of the dead undergo temporary punishment that purges them of venial sins, ....which are less serious offenses. Once purified, these souls can enter heaven. The souls of persons who die with unforgiven serious offenses, such ....as murder, go to hell. The concept of purgatory is derived from II Maccabees, an Old Testament book rejected by Protestants and Jews, and from ....New Testament references.
4. Rapier: In their match Hamlet and Laertes each use a rapier, a narrow sword designed for thrusting and parrying (deflecting the lunging rapier of ....the opponent) rather than slashing (as with the heavier broadsword). Before the match, the weapons are referred to as foils, which are rapiers with ....blunted tips. However, Laertes’s rapier has a pointed tip laced with poison.
5. Primal eldest curse: Allusion to the curse on Cain after he killed Abel.


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5.1 "The Canonization" - Donne
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Summary
The speaker asks his addressee to be quiet, and let him love. If the addressee cannot hold his tongue, the speaker tells him to criticize him for other shortcomings (other than his tendency to love): his palsy, his gout, his "five grey hairs," or his ruined fortune. He admonishes the addressee to look to his own mind and his own wealth and to think of his position and copy the other nobles ("Observe his Honour, or his Grace, / Or the King's real, or his stamped face / Contemplate.") The speaker does not care what the addressee says or does, as long as he lets him love.
The speaker asks rhetorically, "Who's injured by my love?" He says that his sighs have not drowned ships, his tears have not flooded land, his colds have not chilled spring, and the heat of his veins has not added to the list of those killed by the plague. Soldiers still find wars and lawyers still find litigious men, regardless of the emotions of the speaker and his lover.
The speaker tells his addressee to "Call us what you will," for it is love that makes them so. He says that the addressee can "Call her one, me another fly," and that they are also like candles ("tapers"), which burn by feeding upon their own selves ("and at our own cost die"). In each other, the lovers find the eagle and the dove, and together ("we two being one") they illuminate the riddle of the phoenix, for they "die and rise the same," just as the phoenix does--though unlike the phoenix, it is love that slays and resurrects them.
He says that they can die by love if they are not able to live by it, and if their legend is not fit "for tombs and hearse," it will be fit for poetry, and "We'll build in sonnets pretty rooms." A well-wrought urn does as much justice to a dead man's ashes as does a gigantic tomb; and by the same token, the poems about the speaker and his lover will cause them to be "canonized," admitted to the sainthood of love. All those who hear their story will invoke the lovers, saying that countries, towns, and courts "beg from above / A pattern of your love!"
Form
The five stanzas of "The Canonization" are metered in iambic lines ranging from trimeter to pentameter; in each of the nine-line stanzas, the first, third, fourth, and seventh lines are in pentameter, the second, fifth, sixth, and eighth in tetrameter, and the ninth in trimeter. (The stress pattern in each stanza is 545544543.) The rhyme scheme in each stanza is ABBACCCDD.
Commentary
This complicated poem, spoken ostensibly to someone who disapproves of the speaker's love affair, is written in the voice of a world-wise, sardonic courtier who is nevertheless utterly caught up in his love. The poem simultaneously parodies old notions of love and coins elaborate new ones, eventually concluding that even if the love affair is impossible in the real world, it can become legendary through poetry, and the speaker and his lover will be like saints to later generations of lovers. (Hence the title: "The Canonization" refers to the process by which people are inducted into the canon of saints).
Stanza1: the speaker obliquely details his relationship to the world of politics, wealth, and nobility; by assuming that these are the concerns of his addressee, he indicates his own background amid such concerns, and he also indicates the extent to which he has moved beyond that background. He hopes that the listener will leave him alone and pursue a career in the court, toadying to aristocrats, preoccupied with favor (the King's real face) and money (the King's stamped face, as on a coin).
Stanza-2: he parodies contemporary Petrarchan notions of love and continues to mock his addressee, making the point that his sighs have not drowned ships and his tears have not caused floods. (Petrarchan love-poems were full of claims like "My tears are rain, and my sighs storms.") He also mocks the operations of the everyday world, saying that his love will not keep soldiers from fighting wars or lawyers from finding court cases--as though war and legal wrangling were the sole concerns of world outside the confines of his love affair.
Stanza-3: the speaker begins spinning off metaphors that will help explain the intensity and uniqueness of his love. First, he says that he and his lover are like moths drawn to a candle ("her one, me another fly"), then that they are like the candle itself. They embody the elements of the eagle (strong and masculine) and the dove (peaceful and feminine) bound up in the image of the phoenix, dying and rising by love.
Stanza-4: the speaker explores the possibility of canonization in verse, and in the final stanza, he explores his and his lover's roles as the saints of love, to whom generations of future lovers will appeal for help. Throughout, the tone of the poem is balanced between a kind of arch, sophisticated sensibility ("half-acre tombs") and passionate amorous abandon ("We die and rise the same, and prove / Mysterious by this love").
"The Canonization" is one of Donne's most famous and most written-about poems. Its criticism at the hands of Cleanth Brooks and others has made it a central topic in the argument between formalist critics and historicist critics; the former argue that the poem is what it seems to be, an anti-political love poem, while the latter argue, based on events in Donne's life at the time of the poem's composition, that it is actually a kind of coded, ironic rumination on the "ruined fortune" and dashed political hopes of the first stanza. The choice of which argument to follow is largely a matter of personal temperament. But unless one seeks a purely biographical understanding of Donne, it is probably best to understand the poem as the sort of droll, passionate speech-act it is, a highly sophisticated defense of love against the corrupting values of politics and privilege.

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5.2 "A Lecture Upon the Shadow": The faults of a metaphor - Liana R. Prieto (March 1998)
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"A Lecture upon the Shadow" seems to be a poem signaling the inevitable decline of love, but it is not. John Donne metaphorically equates the rising and setting of the sun with a love affair. The metaphor says that love grows, reaches a peak, and then quickly declines, as does the sun in its daily course. The metaphor applies if the poem were meant to be a subtle way for the narrator to inform his lover of his pessimistic view of love. However, Donne's hopeful tone, expressed through his repeated use of the words except and if, suggests that Donne does not believe that love will inevitably die. Donne believes that the high point of love can be maintained, but this conflicts with the metaphor in that the duration of noon can never be prolonged.

The morning, noon and evening described in this poem parallel the rise and fall of a relationship based on love. The 1st stanza details the progression of love from its beginnings to its peak. During the first stages of love, young lovers often keep their feelings private, wanting to be sure of their love before submitting it to public scrutiny. This is what the lovers in the poem have done: "So whilst our infant loves did grow, / Disguises did, and shadows, flow / from us". (ll.10 - 11) The lovers have worked diligently under the guise of the shadows they them "selves produc'd" in order to substantiate their love.

At noon, the narrator decides to stop walking and explain to his lover his "philosophy" of love. (l. 2) The narrator points out that "now the Sunne is just above our head", and no longer do they hide under the cover of morning shadows. (l. 6) Their "love hath attain'd the highest degree" and emerged from the shadows. (l. 13) At this point, the shadows they used as disguises are invisible below them and they stand in the "brave clearenesse" of unchallenged light. The lovers, and everyone who sees them, are aware of the virtue of their love.

However, according to the metaphor, this highest form of love is short-lived because the "first minute after noone, is night". (l. 26) The shadows that once blinded others will reappear and " these which come behinde / will worke upon" the lovers, blinding them. (ll. 17 - 18) As their love declines, these new shadows represent the disguises each lover will use to manipulate the other. The narrator goes on to say that "I to thee mine actions shall disguise", warning her of the lies and secrets that are to come between them. "The morning shadows weare away, / But" the shadows that blind the lovers "grow longer all the day" until they stand in total darkness. (ll. 22 - 23) Though the lovers may attempt to deny that they are falling out of love, eventually, they will be unable to maintain their relationship.

This cyclical metaphor of love as the day applies to many a romantic relationship, but the poet undermines his own metaphor by trying to stop the cycle at its highest point. The narrator and his love have been taking a morning walk for three hours. The shrinking shadows of the morning are representative of the disguises the lovers shed. At noon, they stand together with the sun above them illuminating their love. In the day, this point is a fleeting moment and, therefore, the metaphor deems it impossible for such a love to not degenerate.

In the second stanza, despite the unstoppable, cyclical nature of the day, the poet makes a plea to his lover to extend the moment and make their love last. When he says "Except our loves at this noone stay, / We shall new shadows make the other way", he is revealing his true optimistic philosophy of love that contradicts the metaphor. (ll. 14 - 15) The narrator tells his love that the lies and disguises that could separate them are dependent on "if our loves faint". (l. 19) Every day the sun rises and sets without exception, without regard to human action or emotion. If their love were metaphorically compatible with the day, it would inevitably deteriorate. Donne, nonetheless, continues trying to repudiate his own metaphor when he writes "But, oh, loves day is short, if love decay". (l. 24) Days do not vary in length, and if love and the day were synchronous, neither would love. In direct contradiction with the metaphor, the second stanza serves as a warning of what could happen should something go wrong, not as an unavoidable pronouncement of the future.

One argument against my reading is that Donne is aware of the inadequacies of the metaphor and is informing his lover of their fate in a roundabout way. Another argument is that the choice of the day is a subconscious, but telling choice. This implies that the author is trying to maintain an optimistic view because his love is currently doing well, but knows that it will end soon. However, if either of these arguments were valid, then Donne would not have used the conditional. He did not simply put these words in the poem to sustain the rhythm and meter; he chose them because he feels that the decline of this love affair is not inevitable.

Now that the faults in the metaphor have been established, one must question Donne's choice. Why would a poet opt to use the day as a metaphor if it does not fully apply to love? The conclusion I have come to is that the morning and noon parallel the model relationship he is describing, and though he hopes the relationship will not continue to follow the metaphor, the day is still the closest thing he could think of with which to compare love. Love is an often indescribable, human emotion that can never be wholly equated with anything else. Due to the complexity of human emotion, especially love, a perfect metaphorical comparison is impossible. A better choice for Donne would have been, perhaps, to describe love not in terms of he day but in terms of itself and the other human emotions and qualities that go along with it.
True love and the cycle of the day are simply not metaphorically compatible when we examine the poet's intent. The narrator wants his love to remain at the peak it has reached, but if love follows the path of the rising sun, then it must also follow the path of the setting sun. The poet establishes a correlation between the course of the day and love and then tries to nullify it when it no longer serves his goal. The one thing that Donne makes very clear in this poem is the difficulty of finding a metaphor appropriate for describing love.

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5.3 Death, Be Not Proud - John Donne - Written Between 1601 and 1610
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Death, be not proud, though some have called thee Death . . .proud: Personification/metaphor in which death is compared
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so; to a person
For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow, overthrow: kill
Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.
From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be, thy pictures be: rest and sleep mimic death
Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,
And soonest our best men with thee do go, soonest: willingly; as soon as
Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery. Line 8: their bones go to their earthly rest but their souls do not die
Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men, slave: death is only a servant of events that end life: bad luck,
And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell; accidents, royal decrees, murder, war, and illness
And poppy or charms can make us sleep as well poppy or charms: charms and drugs made from poppy seeds can
And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then? also induce sleep–and do it better than death can
One short sleep past, we wake eternally, why swell'st thou: why do you swell with pride?
And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.
The poem first appeared as “Holy Sonnet X” in a collection of 19 sonnets by John Donne (1572-1631). However, its title came to be known as “Death, Be Not Proud” (after the first four words of the poem) or simply as “Death.” It was written between 1601 and 1610–the exact year is uncertain–and published after Donne died.
Type of Work
"Death, Be Not Proud" is a sonnet (14-line poem) similar in format to that established in Italy by Petrarch (1304-1374), a Roman Catholic priest who popularized the sonnet form before it was adopted and modified in England. Petrarch's sonnets each consist of an eight-line stanza (octave) and a six-line stanza (sestet). The first stanza presents a theme, and the second stanza develops it.
Theme
“Death Be Not Proud” is among the most famous and most beloved poems in English literature. Its popularity lies in its message of hope couched in eloquent, quotable language. Donne’s theme tells the reader that death has no right to be proud, since human beings do not die but live eternally after “one short sleep.” Although some people depict death as mighty and powerful, it is really a lowly slave that depends on luck, accidents, decrees, murder, disease, and war to put men to sleep. But a simple poppy (whose seeds provide a juice to make a narcotic) and various charms (incantations, amulets, spells, etc.) can also induce sleep–and do it better than death can. After a human being’s soul leaves the body and enters eternity, it lives on; only death dies.
Summary - 2
The sonnet “Death Be Not Proud”, written by John Donne around the year 1618, is one of many sonnets that are part of a collection called The Holy Sonnets. This collection is comprised of nineteen sonnets with themes that pertain to Christian philosophy.
“Death Be Not Proud” is a powerful declaration against death, in which death is personified as a tyrant without real power “…some have called thee / Mighty and dreadfull, for, thou art not soe” (1-2). The poem continues to dismantle death from something mysterious and feared, to something weak and irrelevant. The speaker’s main polemic is grounded in the beliefs of Christian philosophy, in particular, its promise of eternal life. But prior to this, the poem dismantles death from secular angles as well.
From a structural standpoint, the poem tightly adheres to the sonnet form, which is defined as a lyric poem that adheres to a conventional rhyme scheme and is usually made up of fourteen lines (Murfin, Ray 450). The rhyme scheme for this poem is “abbaabbacddcee”.
The poem attacks death from two different angles: a secular angle and a religious angle. The first twelve lines are mostly secular in the sense that a non-Christian can at least follow the argument. The last two lines require a belief in Christianity, and with this belief, comes the more powerful, irrefutable claim, dramatically stated in the words “And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die”(14), which pertains to the Christian concept of Eternal Life.
The first angle, the secular, the speaker starts with a feeling of disdain and loathing in the words used against death, creating an immediate pejorative connotation with this character. This is followed by flippancy and mocking: “Die not, poore Death, nor yet canst thou kill me” (4). Here the words “poore Death” are used to diminish Death’s formidability. This line follows with another that has the same enervating effect, “From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be, / Much pleasure; then from thee much more most flow” (5-6). Here the speaker, using logic, is stating that since death appears outwardly to be merely a sleep, and sleep being a pleasurable thing, death must be even more pleasurable.
Flippancy and mocking is then turned into disarmament as the speaker addresses Death as a slave, at the whim of external influences, “Thou art slave to Fate, Chance, kings, and desperate men” (9). This line intimates that death has no real power, but is merely summoned like an instrument without complete autonomy of its own will.
The last part of the poem, particularly in the last two lines, forms the more powerful and convincing argument against the fortitude of death; however, it requires a belief in Christianity.
According to Christian philosophy, those that believe in Christ will never die but live eternally, "That whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have eternal life" (John. 3.15 King James Version). This is not to imply that believers escape the natural course of all living things, which is to eventually cease from living, to die; death to Christians is not a ceasing of life, but rather, an entering into life, a better life, an eternal life. In essence, the earthly perishable body is left behind and the soul continues to live forever thereby escaping death:
"So when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory" (1 Cor. 15.54).
In the aforementioned passage from the King James Version of the Bible, Saint Paul, in his letter to the Corinthians, again reiterates the Christian faith’s view of death as something “irrelevant”, a similar view that is taken in John Donne’s sonnet “Death Be Not Proud”.
The last line of the poem is the final thrust against death. It is a claim that death is meaningless, and a paradox. This is written as a recursive statement “…death, thou shalt die”(14). Since there is no death, the only thing left is Eternal Life.
But this poem is not merely a remonstration; it is also a passionate piece of writing that is imbued with emotion and sounds. Starting from the first line, “Death be not proud, though some have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so” (1-2), the words that are chosen and their placement, adds a peremptory tone to this first declaration; these are lines that can not be whispered, but rather, belched out sonorously. The entire poem follows in this manner, as a declaration loudly commanded. This continues up until the last lines of the sonnet, where the tone shifts to that of “finality”, “And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die” (14). Also, many of the words in this poem bear heavy connotations, “Thou are slave to Fate, Chance, kings, and desperate men” (9), the words “slave” and “desperate” are words with strong emotional connotations.
“Death Be Not Proud” by John Donne, is a sonnet from the revered Holy Sonnets that passionately argues against the formidability of death. The poem cites the Christian hope of Eternal Life as the ultimate escape from death, but does provide secular arguments as well that work in lightening the concept of death. But beyond this, the sonnet is a literary work of immense beauty and structure; it is a brilliant work from any point-of-view.

Summary – 3
In "Death be not proud" (Divine Sonnet X), Donne turns his rhetorical skills on his greatest poetic adversary - death itself.
"Divine Sonnet X" by John Donne is one of his best-known religious poems. It famously begins "Death be not proud" and advances a stream of arguments to prove that man's greatest fear has no power over him.
Apostrophe
The opening line, "Death be not proud", is an apostrophe or address to an abstract figure. Donne favours apostrophes and dramatic monologues, which give an immediacy and urgency to his rhetoric - in his career as a churchman, Donne was a famous preacher, so it's no surprise that many of his poems sound like dramatic speeches. In rhetorically picking on death, Donne is taking on a big adversary, though not entirely without precedent. There is an echo in the opening of St. Paul's famous demand in 1Corinthians 15:55, "O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?"
Arguments
Rather than developing a single line of logic, Donne throws several arguments at Death to try to humble it. "those whom thou think'st thou dost ovethrow/ Die not" he declares, without fully explaining what he means at this point. "Rest and sleep" seem to be the "pictures" of death, and these are enjoyable, he argues, so the real thing must be even more pleasant - and in any case "soonest our best men with thee do go"; if the good die young, why should anyone want to avoid it?
In a brilliant turn of argument, Donne tells Death that it is not "mighty and dreadful" because it is merely a functionary, a "slave to fate, chance, kings and desperate men". Anything which can be whistled for by so many despicable causes is hardly to be respected. Its habitat is amongst "poison, war and sickness", a realm which no-one would want to rule. This is typical Donne: grandiose, verbally aggressive, and picking up any argument, however specious or inconsistent, which can serve to support his cause. He even goes so far as to patronize the Grim Reaper, calling it "poor death" and demanding "why swell'st thou then?"
Conclusion
As the poem ends he elaborates on his earlier statement that "those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow/ Die not...nor yet can'st thou kill me", by pointing out that for Christians, death is merely the beginning of eternal life: "one short sleep past, we live eternally." He encapsulates this in an even shorter phrase in the last line, mingling the consolation of the Christian faith with a paradox, and triumphing "Death will be more no more, death, thou shalt die."


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6. Herbert's Conceit of The Pulley
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It would be difficult to explain Herbert's poem without alluding to Pandora's box of gifts. The gods, especially Zeus, gave Pandora a box, warning her never to open it. Her curiosity overcame her, however, and she opened it, releasing innumerable plagues and sorrows into the world. Only Hope, the one good thing the box had contained, remained to comfort humanity in its misfortunes. In this poem, the fusion of the classical and the Christian add richness and dimension to the poem's guiding metaphysical conceit, which is a pulley that draws man slowly toward God.

Pulleys and hoists are mechanical devices aimed at assisting us with moving heavy loads through a system of ropes and wheels (pulleys) to gain advantage. We should not be surprised at the use of a pulley as a central conceit since the domain of physics and imagery from that discipline would have felt quite comfortable to most of the metaphysical poets.

In the poem, the central idea posited by Herbert is that when God made man, he poured all his blessings on him, including strength, beauty, wisdom, honor and pleasure. However, as in Pandora's box, one element remained. We are told that God "made a stay," that is, He kept "Rest in the bottome." We might, in modern parlance, call this God's ace. God is aware that if He were to bestow this "jewel" (i.e. rest) on Man as well then Man would adore God's gifts instead of God Himself. God has withheld the gift of rest from man knowing fully well that His other treasures would one day result in a spiritual restlessness and fatigue in man who, having tired of His material gifts, would necessarily turn to God in his exhaustion. God, being omniscient and prescient, knows that there is the possibility that even the wicked might not turn to Him, but He knows that eventually mortal man is prone to lethargy; his lassitude, then, would be the leverage He needed to toss man to His breast. In the context of the mechanical operation of a pulley, the kind of leverage and force applied makes the difference for the weight being lifted. Applied to man in this poem, we can say that the withholding of Rest by God is the leverage that will hoist or draw mankind towards God when other means would make that task difficult. However, in the first line of the last stanza, Herbert puns on the word "rest" suggesting that perhaps God will, after all, let man "keep the rest," but such a reading would seem to diminish the force behind the poem's conceit.

The importance of rest -and, by association, sleep- is an idea that was certainly uppermost in the minds of Renaissance writers. Many of Shakespeare's plays include references to sleep or the lack of it as a punishment for sins committed. In Macbeth, for example, the central protagonist is said to "lack the season of all natures, sleep" and both Lady Macbeth and Macbeth are tormented by the lack of sleep. Even Othello is most disconcerted by the fact that he is unable to sleep peacefully once Iago has poisoned him with the possibility of his wife's infidelity with Cassio.

Herbert's Pulley, then, does not present a new concept. In fact, the ideas in the poem are quite commonplace for seventeenth century religious verse. What is distinctly metaphysical about the poem is that a religious notion is conveyed through a secular, scientific image that requires the reader's acquaintance with, and understanding of, some basic laws of physics.





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7.1 To his Coy Mistress - Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)
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Had we but world enough, and time,
This coyness, lady, were no crime.
We would sit down and think which way
To walk, and pass our long love's day;
Thou by the Indian Ganges' side
Shouldst rubies find; I by the tide
Of Humber would complain. I would
Love you ten years before the Flood;
And you should, if you please, refuse
Till the conversion of the Jews.
My vegetable love should grow
Vaster than empires, and more slow.
An hundred years should go to praise
Thine eyes, and on thy forehead gaze;
Two hundred to adore each breast,
But thirty thousand to the rest;
An age at least to every part,
And the last age should show your heart.
For, lady, you deserve this state,
Nor would I love at lower rate.

But at my back I always hear
Time's winged chariot hurrying near;
And yonder all before us lie
Deserts of vast eternity.
Thy beauty shall no more be found,
Nor, in thy marble vault, shall sound
My echoing song; then worms shall try
That long preserv'd virginity,
And your quaint honour turn to dust,
And into ashes all my lust.
The grave's a fine and private place,
But none I think do there embrace.

Now therefore, while the youthful hue
Sits on thy skin like morning dew,
And while thy willing soul transpires
At every pore with instant fires,
Now let us sport us while we may;
And now, like am'rous birds of prey,
Rather at once our time devour,
Than languish in his slow-chapp'd power.
Let us roll all our strength, and all
Our sweetness, up into one ball;
And tear our pleasures with rough strife
Thorough the iron gates of life.
Thus, though we cannot make our sun
Stand still, yet we will make him run.


coyness: evasiveness, hesitancy, modesty, coquetry, reluctance; playing hard to get
which . . . walk: example of enjambment (carrying the sense of one line of verse over to the next line without a pause)
Thou, Thine, Thy: For a guide to these and other archaic pronouns–such as thine, thee, and thyself–click here.
Ganges: River in Asia originating in the Himalayas and flowing southeast, through India, to the Bay of Bengal. The young man here suggests that the young lady could postpone her commitment to him if her youth lasted a long, long time. She could take real or imagined journeys abroad, even to India. She could also refuse to commit herself to him until all the Jews convert to Christianity. But since youth is fleeting (as the poem later points out), there is no time for such journeys. She must submit herself to him now.
rubies: gems that may be rose red or purplish red. In folklore, it is said that rubies protect and maintain virginity. Ruby deposits occur in various parts of the world, but the most precious ones are found in Asia, including Myanmar (Burma), India, Thailand, Sri, Lanka, Afghanistan, and Russia.
Humber: River in northeastern England. It flows through Hull, Andrew Marvell's hometown.
Flood . . . Jews: Resorting to hyperbole, the young man says that his love for the young lady is unbounded by time. He would love her ten years before great flood that Noah outlasted in his ark (Gen. 5:28-10:32) and would still love her until all Jews became Christians at the end of the world.
vegetable love: love cultivated and nurtured like a vegetable so that it flourishes prolifically
this state: This lofty position; this dignity
Time's wingèd chariot: In Greek mythology, the sun was personified as the god Apollo, who rode his golden chariot from east to west each day. Thus, Marvell here associates the sun god with the passage of time.
marble vault: The young lady's tomb.
worms: a morbid phallic reference
quaint: preserved carefully or skillfully
dew: The 1681 manuscript of the poem uses glew (not dew), apparently as a coined past tense for glow.
transpires: erupts, breaks out, emits, gives off
slow-chapt: chewing or eating slowly
Thorough: Through

Theme and Summary
“To His Coy Mistress” presents a familiar theme in literature–carpe diem (meaning seize the day), a term coined by the ancient Roman poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus, known as Horace (65-8 B.C.). Here is the gist of Andrew Marvell's poem: In response to a young man’s declarations of love for a young lady, the lady is playfully hesitant, artfully demure. But dallying will not do, he says, for youth passes swiftly. He and the lady must take advantage of the moment, he says, and “sport us while we may.” Oh, yes, if they had “world enough, and time” they would spend their days in idle pursuits, leisurely passing time while the young man heaps praises on the young lady. But they do not have the luxury of time, he says, for “time's wingéd chariot” is ever racing along. Before they know it, their youth will be gone; there will be only the grave. And so, the poet pleads his case: Seize the day.
The Title
The title suggests (1) that the author looked over the shoulder of a young man as he wrote a plea to a young lady and (2) that the author then reported the plea exactly as the young man expressed it. However, the author added the title, using the third-person possessive pronoun "his" to refer to the young man. The word "coy" tells the reader that the lady is no easy catch; the word "mistress" can mean lady, manager, caretaker, courtesan, sweetheart, and lover. It can also serve as the female equivalent of master. In "To His Coy Mistress," the word appears to be a synonym for lady or sweetheart. In reality, of course, Marvell wrote the entire poem.
The Persona (The Young Man)
Although Andrew Marvell writes "To His Coy Mistress" in first-person point of view, he presents the poem as the plea of another man (fictional, of course). The poet enters the mind of the man and reports his thoughts as they manifest themselves. The young man is impatient, desperately so, unwilling to tolerate temporizing on the part of the young lady. His motivation appears to be carnal desire rather than true love; passion rules him. Consequently, one may describe him as immature and selfish.
"To His Coy Mistress" as a Metaphysical Poem
"To His Coy Mistress," acclaimed long after Marvell's death a masterly work, is a lyrical poem that scholars also classify as a metaphysical poem. Metaphysical poetry, pioneered by John Donne, tends to focus on the following:
• Startling comparisons or contrasts of a metaphysical (spiritual, transcendent, abstract) quality to a concrete (physical, tangible, sensible) object. In "To His Coy Mistress," for example, Marvell compares love to a vegetable (Line 11) in a waggish metaphor.
• Mockery of idealized romantic poetry through crude or shocking imagery, as in Lines 27 and 28 ("then worms shall try / That long preserved virginity').
• Gross exaggeration (hyperbole), as in Line 15 ("two hundred [years] to adore each breast].
• Expression of personal, private feelings, such as those the young man expresses in "To His Coy Mistress."
• Presentation of a logical argument, or syllogism. In "To His Coy Mistress," this argument may be outlined as follows: (1) We could spend decades or even centuries in courtship if time stood still and we remained young. (2) But time passes swiftly and relentlessly. (3) Therefore, we must enjoy the pleasure of each other now, without further ado. The conclusion of the argument begins at Line 33 with "Now therefore."
Meter and Rhyme
The poem is in iambic tetrameter, with eight syllables (four feet) per line. Each foot consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The last syllable of Line 1 rhymes with the last syllable of Line 2, the last syllable of Line 3 rhymes with the last syllable of Line 4, the last syllable of Line 5 rhymes with the last syllable of Line 6, and so on. Such pairs of rhyming lines are called couplets. The following two lines, which open the poem, exhibit the meter and rhyme prevailing in most of the other couplets in the poem:
......1.................2................3..............4
Had WE | but WORLD | e NOUGH | and TIME
......1.......... ..2......... ....3...............4
This COY | ness LA | dy WERE | no CRIME
Setting
The poem does not present a scene in a specific place in which people interact. However, the young man and the young lady presumably live somewhere in England (the native land of the author), perhaps in northeastern England near the River Humber. The poet mentions the Humber in Line 7.
Characters
Young Man: He pleads with a young lady to stop playing hard to get and accept his love.
Young Lady: A coquettish woman.
Study Questions and Essay Topics
• Why does this poem, written in the 17th Century, remain popular in the 21st Century?
• Write an essay that analyzes the personality and character of the young man.
• Identify examples in the poem of metaphor, alliteration, hyperbole, personification, and other figures of speech.
• Why does Marvell use the word echoing in Line 27?
• What is Marvell's tone (or attitude) in Lines 31 and 32?

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7.2 The Garden - Andrew Marvell
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As with many of his poems, Andrew Marvell wrote The Garden to put forward his point of view and then argue it logically. In The Definition of Love, for example, he writes about unrequited passions, insisting that Fate itself acts against true love; in The Garden he takes a similarly pessimistic viewpoint and takes it to its misanthropic limits, attempting to argue that being at one with nature and away from other people is the best way to live.

All poets have traits and habits that define their own style - some more so than others. Marvell's style is particularly recognizable, as he commonly uses several easily identifiable techniques and images. Of the latter, The Garden features many of Marvell's staple ingredients. Central to the entire poem is the idea of pure nature, of a world without the intrusion of mankind: Marvell's own Eden. In his poetry, he takes every opportunity to extol the virtues of a type of hermitage, of being at peace with oneself and the universe as a whole; this can also be seen as central themes in poems such as The Picture of little T.C. in a Prospect of Flowers and Bermudas, to name but two. The Garden takes it to its extremes, however, and presents its case most fervently. The two-line epigram
Society is all but rude,
To this delicious Solitude.
summarizes his argument concisely - Marvell would much prefer a life of isolation to the hectic interaction with other people that is part of an ordinary life. Also, this seems to be very much Marvell's opinion: often in poetry it is unclear as to whether the poet shares the same views as the narrator; with Marvell's work, it always seems apparent that it contains his own views.

Another of Marvell's regular themes that is utilized in The Garden is that of classical and biblical references. The paradise he depicts if very much like the garden of Eden, and Greek and Latin references abound:

Apollo hunted Daphne so,
Only that She might Laurel grow.
And Pan did after Syrinx speed,
Not as a Nymph, but for a Reed.
In a similar vein, he often uses exotic references (for the time). "Stumbling on Melons• and mentioning "The Nectaren• would have greatly impressed people of Marvell's time; these fruits had only recently been discovered in the New World - it was indeed a time of discovery, and Marvell tries to show his knowledge of current events in any way he can.

The language used is also typically Marvellian. The very first line - "How vainly men themselves amaze• - uses a distorted syntax that is akin to having Marvell's signature on the poem (as with "And yet I quickly might arrive• in The Definition of Love).

Structurally, the poem looks at the argument in a logical manner. Not relying on the reader's simple acceptance of his own ideas, Marvell continuously drives the point home that a misanthropic, peaceful existence is far preferable to the chaos and noise of society. He begins by laying down his main point, culminating in the aforementioned epigram, then argues that the trees are more beautiful than women; later he describes the luscious greenery of the garden in succulent detail, includes a few exotic and classical references to lend weight to his argument, and finishes with some philosophical discussion of how the soul is at home amongst the greenery. The comparison between the plants and women is something of a conceit; normally, one would not think of comparing the two - Marvell uses this technique in many of his poems to illustrate a point in an unusual and interesting way; probably to give his theories a different perspective.

Ultimately, The Garden is a poem that wears its Marvellian origins on its sleeve for all to see; the common writing techniques and themes that he uses are clear and undisguised.

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8. Mac Flecknoe - John Dryden (1631-1700)
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All human things are subject to decay,
And, when Fate summons, monarchs must obey:
This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young
Was call'd to empire, and had govern'd long:
In prose and verse, was own'd, without dispute
Through all the realms of Non-sense, absolute.
This aged prince now flourishing in peace,
And blest with issue of a large increase,
Worn out with business, did at length debate
To settle the succession of the State:
And pond'ring which of all his sons was fit
To reign, and wage immortal war with wit;
Cry'd, 'tis resolv'd; for nature pleads that he
Should only rule, who most resembles me:
Shadwell alone my perfect image bears,
Mature in dullness from his tender years.
Shadwell alone, of all my sons, is he
Who stands confirm'd in full stupidity.
The rest to some faint meaning make pretence,
But Shadwell never deviates into sense.
Some beams of wit on other souls may fall,
Strike through and make a lucid interval;
But Shadwell's genuine night admits no ray,
His rising fogs prevail upon the day:
Besides his goodly fabric fills the eye,
And seems design'd for thoughtless majesty:
Thoughtless as monarch oaks, that shade the plain,
And, spread in solemn state, supinely reign.
Heywood and Shirley were but types of thee,
Thou last great prophet of tautology:
Even I, a dunce of more renown than they,
Was sent before but to prepare thy way;
And coarsely clad in Norwich drugget came
To teach the nations in thy greater name.
My warbling lute, the lute I whilom strung
When to King John of Portugal I sung,
Was but the prelude to that glorious day,
When thou on silver Thames did'st cut thy way,
With well tim'd oars before the royal barge,
Swell'd with the pride of thy celestial charge;
And big with hymn, commander of an host,
The like was ne'er in Epsom blankets toss'd.
Methinks I see the new Arion sail,
The lute still trembling underneath thy nail.
At thy well sharpen'd thumb from shore to shore
The treble squeaks for fear, the basses roar:
Echoes from Pissing-Alley, Shadwell call,
And Shadwell they resound from Aston Hall.
About thy boat the little fishes throng,
As at the morning toast, that floats along.
Sometimes as prince of thy harmonious band
Thou wield'st thy papers in thy threshing hand.
St. Andre's feet ne'er kept more equal time,
Not ev'n the feet of thy own Psyche's rhyme:
Though they in number as in sense excel;
So just, so like tautology they fell,
That, pale with envy, Singleton forswore
The lute and sword which he in triumph bore
And vow'd he ne'er would act Villerius more.
Here stopt the good old sire; and wept for joy
In silent raptures of the hopeful boy.
All arguments, but most his plays, persuade,
That for anointed dullness he was made.


Close to the walls which fair Augusta bind,
(The fair Augusta much to fears inclin'd)
An ancient fabric, rais'd t'inform the sight,
There stood of yore, and Barbican it hight:
A watch tower once; but now, so fate ordains,
Of all the pile an empty name remains.
From its old ruins brothel-houses rise,
Scenes of lewd loves, and of polluted joys.
Where their vast courts, the mother-strumpets keep,
And, undisturb'd by watch, in silence sleep.
Near these a nursery erects its head,
Where queens are form'd, and future heroes bred;
Where unfledg'd actors learn to laugh and cry,
Where infant punks their tender voices try,
And little Maximins the gods defy.
Great Fletcher never treads in buskins here,
Nor greater Jonson dares in socks appear;
But gentle Simkin just reception finds
Amidst this monument of vanish'd minds:
Pure clinches, the suburbian muse affords;
And Panton waging harmless war with words.
Here Flecknoe, as a place to fame well known,
Ambitiously design'd his Shadwell's throne.
For ancient Decker prophesi'd long since,
That in this pile should reign a mighty prince,
Born for a scourge of wit, and flail of sense:
To whom true dullness should some Psyches owe,
But worlds of Misers from his pen should flow;
Humorists and hypocrites it should produce,
Whole Raymond families, and tribes of Bruce.


Now Empress Fame had publisht the renown,
Of Shadwell's coronation through the town.
Rous'd by report of fame, the nations meet,
From near Bun-Hill, and distant Watling-street.
No Persian carpets spread th'imperial way,
But scatter'd limbs of mangled poets lay:
From dusty shops neglected authors come,
Martyrs of pies, and reliques of the bum.
Much Heywood, Shirley, Ogleby there lay,
But loads of Shadwell almost chok'd the way.
Bilk'd stationers for yeoman stood prepar'd,
And Herringman was Captain of the Guard.
The hoary prince in majesty appear'd,
High on a throne of his own labours rear'd.
At his right hand our young Ascanius sat
Rome's other hope, and pillar of the state.
His brows thick fogs, instead of glories, grace,
And lambent dullness play'd around his face.
As Hannibal did to the altars come,
Sworn by his sire a mortal foe to Rome;
So Shadwell swore, nor should his vow be vain,
That he till death true dullness would maintain;
And in his father's right, and realm's defence,
Ne'er to have peace with wit, nor truce with sense.
The king himself the sacred unction made,
As king by office, and as priest by trade:
In his sinister hand, instead of ball,
He plac'd a mighty mug of potent ale;
Love's kingdom to his right he did convey,
At once his sceptre and his rule of sway;
Whose righteous lore the prince had practis'd young,
And from whose loins recorded Psyche sprung,
His temples last with poppies were o'er spread,
That nodding seem'd to consecrate his head:
Just at that point of time, if fame not lie,
On his left hand twelve reverend owls did fly.
So Romulus, 'tis sung, by Tiber's brook,
Presage of sway from twice six vultures took.
Th'admiring throng loud acclamations make,
And omens of his future empire take.
The sire then shook the honours of his head,
And from his brows damps of oblivion shed
Full on the filial dullness: long he stood,
Repelling from his breast the raging god;
At length burst out in this prophetic mood:


Heavens bless my son, from Ireland let him reign
To far Barbadoes on the Western main;
Of his dominion may no end be known,
And greater than his father's be his throne.
Beyond love's kingdom let him stretch his pen;
He paus'd, and all the people cry'd Amen.
Then thus, continu'd he, my son advance
Still in new impudence, new ignorance.
Success let other teach, learn thou from me
Pangs without birth, and fruitless industry.
Let Virtuosos in five years be writ;
Yet not one thought accuse thy toil of wit.
Let gentle George in triumph tread the stage,
Make Dorimant betray, and Loveit rage;
Let Cully, Cockwood, Fopling, charm the pit,
And in their folly show the writer's wit.
Yet still thy fools shall stand in thy defence,
And justify their author's want of sense.
Let 'em be all by thy own model made
Of dullness, and desire no foreign aid:
That they to future ages may be known,
Not copies drawn, but issue of thy own.
Nay let thy men of wit too be the same,
All full of thee, and differing but in name;
But let no alien Sedley interpose
To lard with wit thy hungry Epsom prose.
And when false flowers of rhetoric thou would'st cull,
Trust Nature, do not labour to be dull;
But write thy best, and top; and in each line,
Sir Formal's oratory will be thine.
Sir Formal, though unsought, attends thy quill,
And does thy Northern Dedications fill.
Nor let false friends seduce thy mind to fame,
By arrogating Jonson's hostile name.
Let Father Flecknoe fire thy mind with praise,
And Uncle Ogleby thy envy raise.
Thou art my blood, where Jonson has no part;
What share have we in Nature or in Art?
Where did his wit on learning fix a brand,
And rail at arts he did not understand?
Where made he love in Prince Nicander's vein,
Or swept the dust in Psyche's humble strain?
Where sold he bargains, whip-stitch, kiss my arse,
Promis'd a play and dwindled to a farce?
When did his muse from Fletcher scenes purloin,
As thou whole Eth'ridge dost transfuse to thine?
But so transfus'd as oil on waters flow,
His always floats above, thine sinks below.
This is thy province, this thy wondrous way,
New humours to invent for each new play:
This is that boasted bias of thy mind,
By which one way, to dullness, 'tis inclin'd,
Which makes thy writings lean on one side still,
And in all changes that way bends thy will.
Nor let thy mountain belly make pretence
Of likeness; thine's a tympany of sense.
A tun of man in thy large bulk is writ,
But sure thou 'rt but a kilderkin of wit.
Like mine thy gentle numbers feebly creep,
Thy Tragic Muse gives smiles, thy Comic sleep.
With whate'er gall thou sett'st thy self to write,
Thy inoffensive satires never bite.
In thy felonious heart, though venom lies,
It does but touch thy Irish pen, and dies.
Thy genius calls thee not to purchase fame
In keen iambics, but mild anagram:
Leave writing plays, and choose for thy command
Some peaceful province in acrostic land.
There thou may'st wings display and altars raise,
And torture one poor word ten thousand ways.
Or if thou would'st thy diff'rent talents suit,
Set thy own songs, and sing them to thy lute.
He said, but his last words were scarcely heard,
For Bruce and Longvil had a trap prepar'd,
And down they sent the yet declaiming bard.
Sinking he left his drugget robe behind,
Born upwards by a subterranean wind.
The mantle fell to the young prophet's part,
With double portion of his father's art.



29] Thomas Heywood (d. 1650?) and James Shirley (1596-1666) were both voluminous dramatists but hardly deserving of this disparagement.
36] Flecknoe had lived in Lisbon for some years and been patronized by King John.
41] Shadwell published his play of Epsom Wells in 1673 but the phrase to which Dryden refers--"Such a fellow as he deserves to be tossed in a blanket"--occurs in another of Shadwell's plays, The Sullen Lovers.
43] In Greek legend the poet and lyrist Arion was borne across the sea on the backs of dolphins.
53] St. André: a popular dancing master.
54] Shadwell's verse opera of Psyche was elaborately produced in 1676.
57] Singleton, a singer, played the part of Villerius in Sir William D'Avenant's opera of The Siege of Rhodes.
64] Augusta: London.
67] The Barbican stood in Aldersgate Street, north of St. Paul's.
74] The Nursery, a theatrical school for training boys and girls for the stage, was established in 1662.
78] The hero of Dryden's Tyrannic Love is Maximin.
79-80] Buskins and socks are symbols respectively of tragedy and comedy, associated here with the Elizabethan playwrights John Fletcher and Ben Jonson.
81] Simkin: a character of a cobbler in an interlude.
83] Clinches (sometimes clenches): puns.
84] Panton: a celebrated punster.
87] Thomas Dekker (1570?-1632), dramatist and miscellaneous writer.
90] Psyche, The Miser, The Humourists: titles of Shadwell's plays. Raymond is a character in The Humourists, and Bruce a character in another of Shadwell's plays, The Virtuoso.
102] John Ogilby (1600-1676), the translator of Virgil.
105] Henry Herringman had been Dryden's publisher. Dryden gives in his text only the initial H....
108] Our young Ascanius: Shadwell. Ascanius was the son of Aeneas, the mythical founder of Rome.
112] Hannibal, the great Carthaginian leader, was solemnly sworn by his father, Hasdrubal, to eternal enmity towards Rome.
122] Flecknoe's pastoral tragi-comedy of Love's Kingdom was published in 1664.
151] Gentle Gorge: Sir George Etherege (1634?-1691), the admirable comic dramatist. The names in the two following lines are characters in his comedies.
163] Sir Charles Sedley (1639?-1701), dramatist, wit, and profligate, was supposed to have helped Shadwell in the composition of Epsom Wells. Dryden slightly disguises his name in the text as S--dl--y.
168] Sir Formal Trifle, an oratorical character in Shadwell's comedy of The Virtuoso.
170] A reference to Shadwell's dedications addressed to the Duke of Newcastle (1592-1676), himself a dramatist.
172] Shadwell was an eulogist of Ben Jonson, whose theory of drama, particularly his conception of "humours," he copied, and wished to be compared with him in ability and style.
179] Prince Nicander: a character in Shadwell's Psyche.
181] Cant catch-phrases used by Shadwell characters, the last by a character in The Virtuoso.
188] Shadwell sees himself as continuing Jonson's tradition of the "Comedy of Humours."
207] It was a fashion during the earlier years of the seventeenth century to write verses in such a variety of metres that their shapes on the printed page resembled, among other objects, wings and altars.
212] Bruce and Longeville, in Shadwell's The Virtuoso, dismiss Sir Formal Trifle by opening a trap-door while he is delivering a speech.
214] Drugget: a coarse cloth.

Summary
Mac Flecknoe is a verse mock-heroic satire written by John Dryden. Written after the English Restoration, when King Charles II came to power, Mac Flecknoe is full of satire and criticism. It is a direct attack on Thomas Shadwell, another prominent poet at this time.
Written about 1678, but not published until 1682, "Mac Flecknoe" is the outcome of a series of disagreements between Thomas Shadwell and Dryden. Shadwell fancied himself heir to Ben Jonson and to the variety of comedy which the latter had commonly written. Shadwell’s poetry was certainly not of the same standard as Jonson’s, and it is possible that Dryden wearied of Shadwell’s argument that Dryden undervalued Jonson. Shadwell and Dryden were separated not only by literary grounds but also by political ones as Shadwell was a Whig, while Dryden was an outspoken supporter of the Stuart monarchy.
The poem illustrates Shadwell as the heir to a kingdom of poetic dullness, represented by his association with Richard Flecknoe, an earlier poet Dryden disliked, but Dryden does not use belittling techniques to satirize him.
The multiplicity of allusions to 17th literary works and to classic Greek and Roman literature with which the poem is riddled, demonstrates Dryden’s complex approach to satire, and the fact that he satirizes his own work as well shows his mastery over and respect towards the mock-heroic style in which the poem is written.
The poem begins in the tone of an epic masterpiece, presenting Shadwell's defining characteristic as dullness, just as every epic hero has a defining characteristic: Odysseus's is cunning; Achilles's is Wroth; the hero of Spenser's Faerie Queene is of Holiness; whilst Satan in paradise Lost has the defining characteristic of pride. Thus, Dryden subverts the theme of the defining characteristic by giving Shadwell a negative characteristic as his only virtue. Dryden uses the mock-heroic through his use of the heightened language of the epic to treat the trivial subjects such as poorly written and largely dismissible poetry. The juxtaposition of the lofty style with unexpected nouns such as 'dullness' provides an ironic contrast and makes the satiric point by the obvious disparity. In this, it works at the verbal level, with the language being carried by strong compelling rhythms and rhymes.
----
MacFlecknoe" is the mocking Scottish form for "son-of-Flecknoe," and the character stands for Thomas Shadwell, whose pretention to be taken for the inheritor of Ben Jonson's poetic tradition Dryden skewers by making him the son of Richard Flecknoe, a poet even Shadwell would see was dull










































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9. Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
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Epistles to Several Persons: Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot

Neque sermonibus vulgi dederis te, nec in præmiis spem posueris rerum tuarum; suis te oportet illecebris ipsa virtus trahat ad verum decus. Quid de te alii loquantur, ipsi videant, sed loquentur tamen.
(Cicero, De Re Publica VI.23)

["... you will not any longer attend to the vulgar mob's gossip nor put your trust in human rewards for your deeds; virtue, through her own charms, should lead you to true glory. Let what others say about you be their concern; whatever it is, they will say it anyway."]


1 Shut, shut the door, good John! fatigu'd, I said,
2 Tie up the knocker, say I'm sick, I'm dead.
3 The dog-star rages! nay 'tis past a doubt,
4 All Bedlam, or Parnassus, is let out:
5 Fire in each eye, and papers in each hand,
6 They rave, recite, and madden round the land.

7 What walls can guard me, or what shades can hide?
8 They pierce my thickets, through my grot they glide;
9 By land, by water, they renew the charge;
10 They stop the chariot, and they board the barge.
1 No place is sacred, not the church is free;
2 Ev'n Sunday shines no Sabbath-day to me:
3 Then from the Mint walks forth the man of rhyme,
4 Happy! to catch me just at dinner-time.

5 Is there a parson, much bemus'd in beer,
6 A maudlin poetess, a rhyming peer,
7 A clerk, foredoom'd his father's soul to cross,
8 Who pens a stanza, when he should engross?
9 Is there, who, lock'd from ink and paper, scrawls
20 With desp'rate charcoal round his darken'd walls?
1 All fly to Twit'nam, and in humble strain
2 Apply to me, to keep them mad or vain.
3 Arthur, whose giddy son neglects the laws,
4 Imputes to me and my damn'd works the cause:
5 Poor Cornus sees his frantic wife elope,
6 And curses wit, and poetry, and Pope.

7 Friend to my life! (which did not you prolong,
8 The world had wanted many an idle song)
9 What drop or nostrum can this plague remove?
30 Or which must end me, a fool's wrath or love?
1 A dire dilemma! either way I'm sped,
2 If foes, they write, if friends, they read me dead.
3 Seiz'd and tied down to judge, how wretched I!
4 Who can't be silent, and who will not lie;
5 To laugh, were want of goodness and of grace,
6 And to be grave, exceeds all pow'r of face.
7 I sit with sad civility, I read
8 With honest anguish, and an aching head;
9 And drop at last, but in unwilling ears,
40 This saving counsel, "Keep your piece nine years."

1 "Nine years!" cries he, who high in Drury-lane
2 Lull'd by soft zephyrs through the broken pane,
3 Rhymes ere he wakes, and prints before Term ends,
4 Oblig'd by hunger, and request of friends:
5 "The piece, you think, is incorrect: why, take it,
6 I'm all submission, what you'd have it, make it."

7 Three things another's modest wishes bound,
8 My friendship, and a prologue, and ten pound.
9 Pitholeon sends to me: "You know his Grace,
50 I want a patron; ask him for a place."

1 Pitholeon libell'd me--"but here's a letter
2 Informs you, sir, 'twas when he knew no better.
3 Dare you refuse him? Curll invites to dine,
4 He'll write a Journal, or he'll turn Divine."

5 Bless me! a packet--"'Tis a stranger sues,
6 A virgin tragedy, an orphan muse."
7 If I dislike it, "Furies, death and rage!"
8 If I approve, "Commend it to the stage."
9 There (thank my stars) my whole commission ends,
60 The play'rs and I are, luckily, no friends.
1 ,,Fir'd that the house reject him, "'Sdeath I'll print it,
2 And shame the fools--your int'rest, sir, with Lintot!"
3 "Lintot, dull rogue! will think your price too much."
4 "Not, sir, if you revise it, and retouch."
5 All my demurs but double his attacks;
6 ,At last he whispers, "Do; and we go snacks."
7 Glad of a quarrel, straight I clap the door,
8 "Sir, let me see your works and you no more."

9 'Tis sung, when Midas' ears began to spring,
70 (Midas, a sacred person and a king)
1 His very minister who spied them first,
2 (Some say his queen) was forc'd to speak, or burst.
3 And is not mine, my friend, a sorer case,
4 When ev'ry coxcomb perks them in my face?

5 "Good friend, forbear! you deal in dang'rous things.
6 I'd never name queens, ministers, or kings;
7 Keep close to ears, and those let asses prick;
8 'Tis nothing"--Nothing? if they bite and kick?
9 Out with it, Dunciad! let the secret pass,
80 That secret to each fool, that he's an ass:
1 The truth once told (and wherefore should we lie?)
2 The queen of Midas slept, and so may I.

3 You think this cruel? take it for a rule,
4 No creature smarts so little as a fool.
5 Let peals of laughter, Codrus! round thee break,
6 Thou unconcern'd canst hear the mighty crack:
7 Pit, box, and gall'ry in convulsions hurl'd,
8 Thou stand'st unshook amidst a bursting world.
9 Who shames a scribbler? break one cobweb through,
90 He spins the slight, self-pleasing thread anew;
1 Destroy his fib or sophistry, in vain,
2 The creature's at his dirty work again;
3 Thron'd in the centre of his thin designs;
4 Proud of a vast extent of flimsy lines!
5 Whom have I hurt? has poet yet, or peer,
6 Lost the arch'd eye-brow, or Parnassian sneer?
7 And has not Colley still his lord, and whore?
8 His butchers Henley, his Free-masons Moore?
9 Does not one table Bavius still admit?
100 Still to one bishop Philips seem a wit?
1 Still Sappho-- "Hold! for God-sake--you'll offend:
2 No names!--be calm!--learn prudence of a friend!
3 I too could write, and I am twice as tall;
4 But foes like these!" One flatt'rer's worse than all.
5 Of all mad creatures, if the learn'd are right,
6 It is the slaver kills, and not the bite.
7 A fool quite angry is quite innocent;
8 Alas! 'tis ten times worse when they repent.

9 One dedicates in high heroic prose,
110 And ridicules beyond a hundred foes;
1 One from all Grub Street will my fame defend,
2 And, more abusive, calls himself my friend.
3 This prints my Letters, that expects a bribe,
4 And others roar aloud, "Subscribe, subscribe."

5 There are, who to my person pay their court:
6 I cough like Horace, and, though lean, am short,
7 Ammon's great son one shoulder had too high,
8 Such Ovid's nose, and "Sir! you have an eye"--
9 Go on, obliging creatures, make me see
120 All that disgrac'd my betters, met in me:
1 Say for my comfort, languishing in bed,
2 "Just so immortal Maro held his head:"
3 And when I die, be sure you let me know
4 Great Homer died three thousand years ago.

5 Why did I write? what sin to me unknown
6 Dipp'd me in ink, my parents', or my own?
7 As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,
8 I lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers came.
9 I left no calling for this idle trade,
130 No duty broke, no father disobey'd.
1 The Muse but serv'd to ease some friend, not wife,
2 To help me through this long disease, my life,
3 To second, Arbuthnot! thy art and care,
4 And teach the being you preserv'd, to bear.

5 But why then publish? Granville the polite,
6 And knowing Walsh, would tell me I could write;
7 Well-natur'd Garth inflamed with early praise,
8 And Congreve lov'd, and Swift endur'd my lays;
9 The courtly Talbot, Somers, Sheffield read,
140 Ev'n mitred Rochester would nod the head,
1 And St. John's self (great Dryden's friends before)
2 With open arms receiv'd one poet more.
3 Happy my studies, when by these approv'd!
4 Happier their author, when by these belov'd!
5 From these the world will judge of men and books,
6 Not from the Burnets, Oldmixons, and Cookes.

7 Soft were my numbers; who could take offence,
8 While pure description held the place of sense?
9 Like gentle Fanny's was my flow'ry theme,
150 A painted mistress, or a purling stream.
1 Yet then did Gildon draw his venal quill;
2 I wish'd the man a dinner, and sat still.
3 Yet then did Dennis rave in furious fret;
4 I never answer'd, I was not in debt.
5 If want provok'd, or madness made them print,
6 I wag'd no war with Bedlam or the Mint.

7 Did some more sober critic come abroad?
8 If wrong, I smil'd; if right, I kiss'd the rod.
9 Pains, reading, study, are their just pretence,
160 And all they want is spirit, taste, and sense.
1 Commas and points they set exactly right,
2 And 'twere a sin to rob them of their mite.
3 Yet ne'er one sprig of laurel grac'd these ribalds,
4 From slashing Bentley down to pidling Tibbalds.
5 Each wight who reads not, and but scans and spells,
6 Each word-catcher that lives on syllables,
7 Ev'n such small critics some regard may claim,
8 Preserv'd in Milton's or in Shakespeare's name.
9 Pretty! in amber to observe the forms
170 Of hairs, or straws, or dirt, or grubs, or worms;
1 The things, we know, are neither rich nor rare,
2 But wonder how the devil they got there?

3 Were others angry? I excus'd them too;
4 Well might they rage; I gave them but their due.
5 A man's true merit 'tis not hard to find,
6 But each man's secret standard in his mind,
7 That casting weight pride adds to emptiness,
8 This, who can gratify? for who can guess?
9 The bard whom pilfer'd pastorals renown,
180 Who turns a Persian tale for half a crown,
1 Just writes to make his barrenness appear,
2 ::And strains, from hard-bound brains, eight lines a year:
3 He, who still wanting, though he lives on theft,
4 Steals much, spends little, yet has nothing left:
5 And he, who now to sense, now nonsense leaning,
6 Means not, but blunders round about a meaning:
7 :And he, whose fustian's so sublimely bad,
8 It is not poetry, but prose run mad:
9 All these, my modest satire bade translate,
190 And own'd, that nine such poets made a Tate.
1 How did they fume, and stamp, and roar, and chafe?
2 And swear, not Addison himself was safe.

3 Peace to all such! but were there one whose fires
4 True genius kindles, and fair fame inspires,
5 Blest with each talent and each art to please,
6 And born to write, converse, and live with ease:
7 Should such a man, too fond to rule alone,
8 Bear, like the Turk, no brother near the throne,
9 View him with scornful, yet with jealous eyes,
200 And hate for arts that caus'd himself to rise;
1 Damn with faint praise, assent with civil leer,
2 And without sneering, teach the rest to sneer;
3 Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike,
4 Just hint a fault, and hesitate dislike;
5 Alike reserv'd to blame, or to commend,
6 A tim'rous foe, and a suspicious friend;
7 Dreading ev'n fools, by flatterers besieg'd,
8 And so obliging, that he ne'er oblig'd;
9 Like Cato, give his little senate laws,
210 And sit attentive to his own applause;
1 While wits and templars ev'ry sentence raise,
2 And wonder with a foolish face of praise.
3 Who but must laugh, if such a man there be?
4 Who would not weep, if Atticus were he?

5 What though my name stood rubric on the walls,
6 Or plaister'd posts, with claps, in capitals?
7 Or smoking forth, a hundred hawkers' load,
8 On wings of winds came flying all abroad?
9 I sought no homage from the race that write;
220 I kept, like Asian monarchs, from their sight:
1 Poems I heeded (now berhym'd so long)
2 No more than thou, great George! a birthday song.
3 I ne'er with wits or witlings pass'd my days,
4 To spread about the itch of verse and praise;
5 Nor like a puppy, daggled through the town,
6 To fetch and carry sing-song up and down;
7 Nor at rehearsals sweat, and mouth'd, and cried,
8 With handkerchief and orange at my side;
9 But sick of fops, and poetry, and prate,
230 To Bufo left the whole Castalian state.

1 Proud as Apollo on his forked hill,
2 Sat full-blown Bufo, puff'd by every quill;
3 Fed with soft dedication all day long,
4 Horace and he went hand in hand in song.
5 His library (where busts of poets dead
6 And a true Pindar stood without a head,)
7 Receiv'd of wits an undistinguish'd race,
8 Who first his judgment ask'd, and then a place:
9 Much they extoll'd his pictures, much his seat,
240 And flatter'd ev'ry day, and some days eat:
1 Till grown more frugal in his riper days,
2 He paid some bards with port, and some with praise,
3 To some a dry rehearsal was assign'd,
4 And others (harder still) he paid in kind.
5 Dryden alone (what wonder?) came not nigh,
6 Dryden alone escap'd this judging eye:
7 But still the great have kindness in reserve,
8 He help'd to bury whom he help'd to starve.

9 May some choice patron bless each grey goose quill!
250 May ev'ry Bavius have his Bufo still!
1 So, when a statesman wants a day's defence,
2 Or envy holds a whole week's war with sense,
3 Or simple pride for flatt'ry makes demands,
4 May dunce by dunce be whistled off my hands!
5 Blest be the great! for those they take away,
6 And those they left me--for they left me Gay;
7 Left me to see neglected genius bloom,
8 Neglected die! and tell it on his tomb;
9 Of all thy blameless life the sole return
260 My verse, and Queensb'ry weeping o'er thy urn!

1 Oh let me live my own! and die so too!
2 ("To live and die is all I have to do:")
3 Maintain a poet's dignity and ease,
4 And see what friends, and read what books I please.
5 Above a patron, though I condescend
6 Sometimes to call a minister my friend:
7 I was not born for courts or great affairs;
8 I pay my debts, believe, and say my pray'rs;
9 Can sleep without a poem in my head,
270 Nor know, if Dennis be alive or dead.

1 Why am I ask'd what next shall see the light?
2 Heav'ns! was I born for nothing but to write?
3 Has life no joys for me? or (to be grave)
4 Have I no friend to serve, no soul to save?
5 "I found him close with Swift"--"Indeed? no doubt",
6 (Cries prating Balbus) "something will come out".
7 'Tis all in vain, deny it as I will.
8 "No, such a genius never can lie still,"
9 And then for mine obligingly mistakes
280 The first lampoon Sir Will. or Bubo makes.
1 Poor guiltless I! and can I choose but smile,
2 When ev'ry coxcomb knows me by my style?

3 Curs'd be the verse, how well soe'er it flow,
4 That tends to make one worthy man my foe,
5 Give virtue scandal, innocence a fear,
6 Or from the soft-ey'd virgin steal a tear!
7 But he, who hurts a harmless neighbour's peace,
8 Insults fall'n worth, or beauty in distress,
9 Who loves a lie, lame slander helps about,
290 Who writes a libel, or who copies out:
1 That fop, whose pride affects a patron's name,
2 Yet absent, wounds an author's honest fame;
3 Who can your merit selfishly approve,
4 And show the sense of it without the love;
5 Who has the vanity to call you friend,
6 Yet wants the honour, injur'd, to defend;
7 Who tells what'er you think, whate'er you say,
8 And, if he lie not, must at least betray:
9 Who to the Dean, and silver bell can swear,
300 And sees at Cannons what was never there;
1 Who reads, but with a lust to misapply,
2 Make satire a lampoon, and fiction, lie.
3 A lash like mine no honest man shall dread,
4 But all such babbling blockheads in his stead.

5 Let Sporus tremble--"What? that thing of silk,
6 Sporus, that mere white curd of ass's milk?
7 Satire or sense, alas! can Sporus feel?
8 Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?"
9 Yet let me flap this bug with gilded wings,
310 This painted child of dirt that stinks and stings;
1 Whose buzz the witty and the fair annoys,
2 Yet wit ne'er tastes, and beauty ne'r enjoys,
3 So well-bred spaniels civilly delight
4 In mumbling of the game they dare not bite.
5 Eternal smiles his emptiness betray,
6 As shallow streams run dimpling all the way.
7 Whether in florid impotence he speaks,
8 And, as the prompter breathes, the puppet squeaks;
9 Or at the ear of Eve, familiar toad,
320 Half froth, half venom, spits himself abroad,
1 In puns, or politics, or tales, or lies,
2 Or spite, or smut, or rhymes, or blasphemies.
3 His wit all see-saw, between that and this ,
4 Now high, now low, now Master up, now Miss,
5 And he himself one vile antithesis.
6 Amphibious thing! that acting either part,
7 The trifling head, or the corrupted heart,
8 Fop at the toilet, flatt'rer at the board,
9 Now trips a lady, and now struts a lord.
330 Eve's tempter thus the rabbins have express'd,
1 A cherub's face, a reptile all the rest;
2 Beauty that shocks you, parts that none will trust,
3 Wit that can creep, and pride that licks the dust.

4 Not fortune's worshipper, nor fashion's fool,
5 Not lucre's madman, nor ambition's tool,
6 Not proud, nor servile, be one poet's praise,
7 That, if he pleas'd, he pleas'd by manly ways;
8 That flatt'ry, even to kings, he held a shame,
9 And thought a lie in verse or prose the same:
340 That not in fancy's maze he wander'd long,
1 But stoop'd to truth, and moraliz'd his song:
2 That not for fame, but virtue's better end,
3 He stood the furious foe, the timid friend,
4 The damning critic, half-approving wit,
5 The coxcomb hit, or fearing to be hit;
6 Laugh'd at the loss of friends he never had,
7 The dull, the proud, the wicked, and the mad;
8 The distant threats of vengeance on his head,
9 The blow unfelt, the tear he never shed;
350 The tale reviv'd, the lie so oft o'erthrown;
1 Th' imputed trash, and dulness not his own;
2 The morals blacken'd when the writings 'scape;
3 The libell'd person, and the pictur'd shape;
4 Abuse, on all he lov'd, or lov'd him, spread,
5 A friend in exile, or a father, dead;
6 The whisper, that to greatness still too near,
7 Perhaps, yet vibrates on his sovereign's ear:--
8 Welcome for thee, fair Virtue! all the past:
9 For thee, fair Virtue! welcome ev'n the last!

360 "But why insult the poor? affront the great?"
1 A knave's a knave, to me, in ev'ry state:
2 Alike my scorn, if he succeed or fail,
3 Sporus at court, or Japhet in a jail,
4 A hireling scribbler, or a hireling peer,
5 Knight of the post corrupt, or of the shire;
6 If on a pillory, or near a throne,
7 He gain his prince's ear, or lose his own.

8 Yet soft by nature, more a dupe than wit,
9 Sappho can tell you how this man was bit:
370 This dreaded sat'rist Dennis will confess
1 Foe to his pride, but friend to his distress:
2 So humble, he has knock'd at Tibbald's door,
3 Has drunk with Cibber, nay, has rhym'd for Moore.
4 Full ten years slander'd, did he once reply?
5 Three thousand suns went down on Welsted's lie.
6 To please a mistress one aspers'd his life;
7 He lash'd him not, but let her be his wife.
8 Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,
9 And write whate'er he pleas'd, except his will;
380 Let the two Curlls of town and court, abuse
1 His father, mother, body, soul, and muse.
2 Yet why? that father held it for a rule,
3 It was a sin to call our neighbour fool:
4 That harmless mother thought no wife a whore,--
5 Hear this! and spare his family, James Moore!
6 Unspotted names! and memorable long,
7 If there be force in virtue, or in song.

8 Of gentle blood (part shed in honour's cause,
9 While yet in Britain honour had applause)
390 Each parent sprung--"What fortune, pray?"--Their own,
1 And better got, than Bestia's from the throne.
2 Born to no pride, inheriting no strife,
3 Nor marrying discord in a noble wife,
4 Stranger to civil and religious rage,
5 The good man walk'd innoxious through his age.
6 No courts he saw, no suits would ever try,
7 Nor dar'd an oath, nor hazarded a lie:
8 Un-learn'd, he knew no schoolman's subtle art,
9 No language, but the language of the heart.
400 By nature honest, by experience wise,
1 Healthy by temp'rance and by exercise;
2 His life, though long, to sickness past unknown;
3 His death was instant, and without a groan.
4 O grant me, thus to live, and thus to die!
5 Who sprung from kings shall know less joy than I.

6 O friend! may each domestic bliss be thine!
7 Be no unpleasing melancholy mine:
8 Me, let the tender office long engage
9 To rock the cradle of reposing age,
410 With lenient arts extend a mother's breath,
1 Make langour smile, and smooth the bed of death,
2 Explore the thought, explain the asking eye,
3 And keep a while one parent from the sky!
4 On cares like these if length of days attend,
5 May Heav'n, to bless those days, preserve my friend,
6 Preserve him social, cheerful, and serene,
7 And just as rich as when he serv'd a queen.
8 Whether that blessing be denied or giv'n,
9 Thus far was right, the rest belongs to Heav'n.


Notes
1] Published in January 1735. This "Epistle" is the result of a correspondence between Pope and his personal physician and lifelong friend, Dr. John Arbuthnot. In the summer of 1734 Arbuthnot, realizing that he was dying, wrote to the poet cautioning him about his satiric attacks on powerful individuals; on August 25 Pope replied: "I determine to address to you one of my Epistles, written by piecemeal many years, and which I have now made haste to put together: wherein the question is stated, what were and are my Motives of writing, the objections to them and my answers." As Pope's letter would suggest, some of the passages were written earlier and some of them--e.g., the Atticus portrait--published earlier. This portion, originally sketched out in 1715, was finally published in 1722 in the St. James Journal and in an expanded form in 1727. Arbuthnot, to whom the poem is addressed, had been one of the Scriblerus group, a prose satirist in his own right, and physician to Queen Anne during her reign.
Pope's summary of the Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot is as follows: "This paper is a sort of bill of complaint, begun many years since, and drawn up by snatches, as the several occasions offered. I had no thoughts of publishing it, till it pleased some persons of rank and fortune (the authors of Verses to the Imitator of Horace, and of an Epistle to a Doctor of Divinity from a Nobleman at Hampton Court) to attack, in a very extraordinary manner, not only my writings (of which, being public, the Public is judge) but my Person, Morals, and Family, whereof, to those who know me not, a truer information may be requisite. Being divided between the necessity to say some thing of myself, and my own laziness to undertake so awkward a task, I thought it the shortest way to put the last hand to this Epistle. If it have anything pleasing, it will be that by which I am most desirous to please, the Truth and the Sentiment; and if anything offensive, it will be only to those I am least sorry to offend, the vicious or the ungenerous. Many will know their own pictures in it, there being not a circumstance but what is true; but I have, for the most part, spared their Names, and they may escape being laughed at, if they please. I would have some of them know, it was owing to the request of the learned and candid Friend to whom it is inscribed that I make not as free use of theirs as they have done of mine. However, I shall have this advantage, and honour, on my side, that whereas, by their proceeding, any abuse may be directed at any man, no injury can possibly be done by mine, since a nameless character can never be found out, but by its Truth and Likeness.
The "Authors" referred to above: Lord Hervey and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Lord Hervey: John Hervey (1696-1743), Vice-Chancellor and confidant of Queen Caroline. He was well known for his trifling verses, effeminacy, profligacy, and gossip. Hervey was one of Pope's bitterest enemies. Lady Mary: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762), a leading figure in eighteenth-century society noted for her wit and extensive travels. As wife of Edward Wortley Montagu, she spent 1716 to 1718 traveling in the east. Pope, who had met her in 1715, wrote many letters while she was away, but after her return in 1720, their friendship cooled, and by 1728, when Pope and Swift first attacked her, the rupture was complete. The main reason for Pope's violent opposition to Hervey was his union with Lady Mary in writing the Verses addressed to the Imitator of Horace.
Neque sermonibus vulgi . . .: "... you will not any longer attend to the vulgar mob's gossip nor put your trust in human rewards for your deeds; virtue, through her own charms, should lead you to true glory. Let what others say about you be their concern; whatever it is, they will say it anyway" (Cicero, De Re Publica, VI, 23).
good John: Pope's servant John Serle.
3] Dog-star: Sirius. The rising of this constellation in August associates it with maddening heat and with the August rehearsals of poetry in Juvenal's Rome. See Horace, Odes, III, xiii, 9, and Juvenal, Sat., iii, 15.
4] Bellam: an insane asylum in London.
Parnassus: mountain sacred to the Muses and Apollo.
8] my grot: Pope's grotto.
10] the barge. Pope employed a waterman to take him up and down the Thames and to deliver messages.
13] the Mint: a sanctuary for insolvent debtors (so called because Henry VIII's mint had been there). On Sundays the debtors could "walk forth" because they were not liable to arrest.
21] Twit'nam: Pope's home at Twickenham.
23] Arthur: Arthur Moore (1666?-1730) was a politician, whose son James Moore Smythe (1702-1734), a writer, had gotten into trouble with Pope for using some of Pope's verses in a play, The Rival Ladies (1727). Later, he collaborated in a poem attacking Pope (cf. line 385). Smythe is also said to have been a leader of English freemasonry (cf. line 98), which Pope attacked in the Dunciad (1742 version).
25] Cornus: from Latin cornu, a horn. Thus it refers to any cuckold. Some identified the reference with Sir Robert Walpole, whose wife left him in 1734.
29] drop: "medicine to be taken in drops . . ." (OED).
31] spel: brought to an evil plight or awkward situation.
40] Keep ... nine years: Horace's advice in his Ars Poetica, 386-89.
41] high: i.e., living in a garret. Drury lane: the abode of harlots and other disreputable types.
43] before Term ends: the end of the summer law court terms, which coincided with the close of the London publishing season.
44] request of friends: an apology frequently set forth in the prefaces of works by bad writers.
49] Pitholeon: "[Pope] The name taken from a foolish poet at Rhodes, who pretended much to Greek. Schol. in Horat. lib. i. Dr. Bentley pretends that this Pitholeon libelled Caesar also. See notes on Hor. Sat. X. 1. I [v.22]."
53] Curll: Edmund Curll (1675-1747), an unsavory publisher and enemy of Pope's. He specialized in scandal, sedition, and pornography. Pope had been involved in attacking Curll as early as 1714. See also lines 113, 380.
54] Journal: abuse Pope in the newspapers. Probably a specific reference to the Whig newspaper, the London Journal.
62] Lintot: Barnaby Bernard Lintot (1675-1736), a bookseller, who published most of Pope's earlier works, including the Rape of the Lock, The Iliad, and The Odyssey.
66] go snacks: "to divide profits" (OED).
69] Midas: semi-legendary king of Phyrgia (the one who wished for and obtained the golden touch), to whom Apollo gave ass's ears for having awarded the prize in a musical contest between Apollo and Pan to Pan.
72] his Queen. "[Pope] The story is told by some [Ovid, Metamorphoses, xi, 146] of his Barber, but by Chaucer of his queen. See the Wife of Bath's Tale in Dryden's Fables [157-200]."
79-80] Ass: appeared as the symbol on the title page to the 1729 Dunciad Variorum.
85] Codrus: a traditional name for a bad poet, borrowed from Juvenal.
87-88] Cf. Essay on Man, I. 96. Parnassian sneer: refers to the 1729 Dunciad Variorum: "Great Tibbald nods: The proud Parnassian sneer . . ." (II, 5).
97] Colley: Colley Cibber; see Dunciad Book IV below.
98] Henley: John Henley (1692-1756), an eccentric preacher, who delivered a sermon celebrating the trade of the butcher at Newport Market on Easter Day 1729, taking for his text: "Thou has put all things in subjection under his feet; all sheep and oxen, yea and the beasts of the field." Moore: see note on line 23.
99] Bavius: a Roman poetaster who owed his immortality to the enmity which he held towards Horace and Virgil, and who was attacked by them. See Virgil, Eclogues, III.100. Philips: Ambrose Philips (1675-1749), a pastoral poet, secretary for some years to Hugh Boulter, Archbishop of Armagh. Philip's Pastorals had been attacked by Pope in The Spectator, 40.
101] Sappho: Lesbian poetess of the seventh century B. C. The name is applied to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.
111] Grub Street: section of eighteenth-century London inhabited by hack writers.
113] my Letters. Curll had published without permission some of Pope's letters to his friends.
114] Subscribe. Books were frequently published by subscription. Pope's Iliad had been published in this manner.
117] Ammon's great son: Alexander the Great.
122] Maro: Virgil.
125-26] what sin ... my own: cf. John 9:2.
134] bear: (1) endure, (2) result in creative fruition.
135] Granville: George Granville, Baron Lansdowne (1667-1735), poet and statesman. Pope submitted some of his early works to Granville, who had been friendly with Dryden.
136] Walsh: see Essay on Criticism, line 729.
137] Garth: Sir Samuel Garth (1661-1719), poet and physician to George I. One of Pope's earliest literary friends, he had encouraged the writing of the Pastorals. His Dispensary (1699) was one of the poetical predecessors of the Rape of the Lock.
139] Talbot: Charles Talbot, twelfth Earl and only Duke of Shrewsbury (1660-1718), statesman, noted for his personal charm and taste.
Somers: John Somers, Baron Somers (1651-1716) Whig statesman, who encouraged Pope in writing of the Pastorals.
Sheffield: John Sheffield, third Earl of Mulgrave. See Essay on Criticism, note on line 724.
140] Rochester: Francis Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester (1662-1732), a Jacobite sympathizer, who was banished in 1732. He was a close friend of Pope's, a member of the Scriblerus Club, and a literary confidant and personal critic for Pope.
141] St. John: see Essay on Man, introductory notes. Dryden's friends. All these were patrons or admirers of Mr. Dryden.
146] "[Pope] Authors of secret and scandalous history."
Burnets: Thomas Burnet (1694-1753), a follower of Addison, who had attacked Pope. In 1719 he left the English literary scene to become a consul.
Oldmixons: John Oldmixon (1673-1742), a miscellaneous writer engaged with Whig interests. His "secret and scandalous" histories are the Secret History of Europe and the History of England during the Reigns of the Royal House of Stuart.
Cooke: Thomas Cooke (1703-1756), poet, pamphleteer, and translator. He attacked Pope in 1726, but tried unsuccessfully to apologize.
149] Fanny: Lord Hervey. See line 305.
151] Gillon: Charles Gildon (1665-1724), a critic who had attacked some of Pope's earlier works. Pope did not attack Gildon except here and in the later version of the Dunciad.
153] Dennis: John Dennis (1657-1734), a critic and dramatist who had been offended by line 585 of the Essay of Criticism. Dennis's reply began a long period of hostility between himself and Pope.
164] Bentley: Richard Bentley (1662-1742), famous English classical scholar, whom Pope and Swift viewed as the stock type of verbal critic, a reputation confirmed by his edition of Horace (1711) and Milton (1732). Cf. The Dunciad, IV.
Tibbalds: Louis Theobold (1688-1744), scholar and dramatist who edited Shakespeare (1734). He attacked Pope's edition of Shakespeare in 1726 and Pope retaliated by making him king of the Dunces in the earlier version of the Dunciad (1728-29).
177] casting weight: the added weight that turns the scale.
180] a Persian tale. "[Pope] Ambrose Philips translated a book called the Persian Tales." See note on line 100. Philips received a half a crown for each section of this book.
183] He. The reference is general here as well as in lines 185 and 187.
189] translate: (1) become translators, (2) transform themselves into writers of genuine talent.
190] Tate: Nahum Tate (1652-1715), minor versifier who was known chiefly for a translation of the psalms and a happy ending which he provided for King Lear.
193 ff.] This satire on Addison was originally written in 1716 and was said to have been sent to Addison himself. Addison and Pope had quarrelled over Pope's Iliad, but they also were representatives of opposing intellectual and political points of view.
207-08] The rhyme besieg'd-oblig'd was a perfect rhyme in Pope's day.
209-10] Cato: Addison's tragedy Cato (1713) for which Pope had written the prologue.
211] templars: lawyers, from those who had their chambers in the Inner or Middle Temple.
214] Atticus: the name of Cicero's cultivated friend, chosen both to suggest Addison and indicate some of his qualities. "[Pope] It was a great falsehood which some of the libels reported, that this character was written after the gentleman's [Addison's] death, which see refuted in the testimonies prefix'd to the Dunciad...."
215] rubric. Lintot often displayed titles of books in red letters.
216] claps: posters.
222] A double thrust at Colley Cibber, the Laureate, who composed royal birthday odes of poor quality, and at the King, whose disdain for poetry was notorious [cf. To Augustus, 404].
225] daggled: to drag or trail about (through the mire) [OED].
230] Bufo: a composite portrait of a literary patron.
Castalian state. Castalia is the name of a spring on Mount Parnassus; hence this refers to the poetic state.
231] forked hill: Parnassus, sacred to Apollo and the Muses.
236] Pindar: "[Pope] ridicules the affectation of antiquaries, who frequently exhibit the headless trunks and terms of statues for Plato, Homer, Pindar, etc...."
247-48] reserve: rhymed with starve.
248] help'd to bury. " [Pope] Mr. Dryden after having lived in exigencies, had a magnificent funeral bestowed upon him by the contributions of several persons of quality."
250] Bavius: see note to line 99.
255-56] Blest be ... Gay: ironically echoing Job 1:21: "The Lord gives, and the Lord hath taken away; blest be the name of the Lord."
256] Gay: John Gay (1685-1732), poet and dramatist, associated with Pope and Swift in the Scriblerus Club. A close personal friend of Pope's, he collaborated with Pope and Arbuthnot on a play, Three Hours After Marriage (1717).
260] Queensb'ry. Charles Douglas (1698-1778), third Duke of Queensbury, erected a monument for Gay in Westminster Abbey with an epitaph written by Pope.
262] Pope quotes Denham's Of Prudence: "Learn to live well, that thou may'st die so too;/To live and die is all we have to do" (93-94).
276] Balbus: George Hay, seventh Earl of Kinnoul (d. 1758), an acquaintance of Pope's who proved to be unscrupulous.
280] Sir Will: Sir William Yonge (d. 1755), a prominent Whig politician, widely held to represent "everything pitiful, corrupt and contemptible."
Bubo: George Bubb Dodington, Baron Melcombe (1691-1762), a minor Whig politician who fancied himself a patron of the arts, but was noted for his ostentation, tastelessness, and affectation. Bubo < Latin owl, with suggestion of booby.




299] Dean: "[Pope] See the Epistle to the Earl of Burlington" (Moral Essay IV, 141-50). Pope's enemies had charged that Timon's Villa was the Duke of Chandos' estate, Cannons (line 300). The "dean" and "silver bel" are both mentioned in the description in Moral Essay IV.
305] Sporus: a homosexual favourite of the Emperor Nero. Pope applies the name to Lord Hervey (see above).
thing of silk: refers to the spinning of the silk worm. The same image is used a number of times in the Dunciad to describe the activity of the bad poets.
306] ass's milk: commonly prescribed as a tonic in the eighteenth century, and part of a diet adopted by Hervey.
310] paintel. Hervey used rouge to conceal his intense pallor.
319] "[Pope] See Milton [Paradise Lost Bk. IV [800]." Eve is Queen Caroline.
330] rabbins: rabbis; here Hebrew commentators on the Old Testament.
341] stoop'd. "[W.] The term is from falconry; and the allusion to one of those untamed birds of spirit, which sometimes wantons in airy circles before it regards, or stoops to, its prey."
343] stood: endured.
349] Alluding to a lampoon which stated that Pope had been publicly beaten, attributed by Pope to Hervey and Lady Mary.
350] "[Pope] that he set his name to Mr. Broome's verses, etc., that he received subscriptions for Shakespeare, which, though publicly disproved, were nevertheless shamelessly repeated in the Libels, and even in that called The Nobleman's Epistle."
351] "[Pope] Profane Psalms, Court Poems, and other scandalous things, printed by Curll etc."
353] Pope's deformity was often a subject of caricature by Hogarth and others.
354] "[Pope] Namely on the Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Burlington, Lord Bathurst, Lord Bolingbroke, Bishop Atterbury, Dr. Swift, Mr. Gay, Dr. Arbuthnot, his Friends, his Parents, and his very Nurse, aspersed in printed papers, by James Moore, G. Ducket, Esquires, L. Welsted, Tho. Bentley, and other obscure persons."
355] friend in exile: Atterbury had died in 1732, Pope's father in 1717.
357] Cf. line 319.
363] Japhet: Japhet Crook (1662-1734), a forger who used the alias Sir Peter Stranger, and who was convicted in 1731, sentenced to stand in pillary, have his ears cut off, his nose slit, forfeit his possessions, and be imprisoned for life.
365] Knight of the Post: "one who got his living by giving false evidence" (OED).
366] or lose his own: see line 363.
369] Sappho: cf. line 101.
372] Pope had tried to promote a subscription edition of some of Dennis's works in 1731. He also contributed a prologue to a play given for Dennis's benefit in 1733.
373] rhym'd for Moore: see note on line 23.
374] ten years. "[Pope] It was so long after many libels before the Author of the Dunciad published that poem, till when, he never writ a word in answer to the many scurrilities and falsehoods concerning him."
375] Welstel's lie. "[Pope] This man had the impudence to tell in print that Mr. P. had occasioned a Lady's death, and to name a person he never heard of. He also published that he had libelled the Duke of Chandos; with whom (it was added) that he had lived in familiarity, and received from him a present of five hundred pounds; the false-hood of both which is known to his Grace. Mr. P. never received any present farther than the subscription for Homer, from him, or from Any great Man whatsoever."
376-77] Pope probably alludes to William Wyndham, co-author (with Lady Mary and Lord Hervey) of an attack. Wyndham had recently married Lady Deloraine, the most likely original for Pope's portrait of Delia. See Moral Epistle II.
378] Budgel. "[Pope] Budgel, in a weekly pamphlet called the Bee, bestowed much abuse on him, in the imagination that he writ some things about the Last Will of Dr. Tindal, in the Grubstreet Journal, a Paper wherein he never had the least hand, direction, or supervisal, nor the least knowledge of its Author."
380] the two Curlls: the publisher (see note on June 53) and Lord Hervey.
381] "[Pope] In some of Curll's and other pamphlets, Mr. Pope's father was said to be a mechanic, a hatter, a farmer, nay a bankrupt. But, what is stranger, a Nobleman (if such a Reflection can be thought to come from a nobleman) has dropped an allusion to that pitiful untruth, in a paper called an Epistle to a Doctor of Divinity: and the following line, Hard as thy Heart, and as thy Birth obscure, had fallen from a like Courtly pen, in certain Verses to the Imitator of Horace. Mr. Pope's father was of a gentleman's family in Oxfordshire, the head of which was the Earl of Downe, whose sole heiress married the Earl of Lindsey.-- His mother was the daughter of William Turner, Esq. of York: She had three brothers, one of whom was killed, another died in the service of King Charles; the eldest following his fortunes, and becoming a general officer in Spain, left her what estate remained after the sequestrations and forfeitures of her family--Mr. Pope died in 1717, aged 75; She in 1733, aged 93, a very few weeks after this poem was finished. The following inscription was placed by their son on their monument in the parish of Twickenham, in Middlesex. D.O.M. /ALEXANDRO . POPE . VIRO . INNOCVO . PROBO . PIO . /QVI . VIXIT . ANNOS . LXXV . OB . MDCCXVII . /ET . EDITHAE . CONIVGI . INCVLPABILI . /PIENTISSIMAE . QVAE . VIXIT . ANNOS . /XCIII . OB . MDCCXXXIII . , /PARENTIBVX . BENEMERENTIBVS . FILIVS . FECIT . /ET . SIBI .
385] Moore: cf. note to line 23.
391] Bestia: a Roman consul bribed into a dishonourable peace. Probably refers to the Duke of Marlborough.
397] English Roman Catholics were still required to take certain oaths which they could not take without a lie, or be deprived of most of their civil right. Pope's father and himself chose deprivation.
410] lenient: softening, soothing.
417] Arbuthnot, being a Tory, lost hls place as court physician on Queen Anne's death.

This poem, taking the form of a verse letter from Pope to his friend and physician John Arbuthnot, spells out Pope's satirical principles — or, at least, how he'd like them to be interpreted.
This Paper is a Sort of Bill of Complaint, begun many years since, and drawn up by snatches, as the several Occasions offer'd. I had no thoughts of publishing it, till it pleas'd some Persons of Rank and Fortune [the Authors of Verses to the Imitator of Horace, and of an Epistle to a Doctor of Divinity from a Nobleman at Hampton Court,] to attack in a very extraordinary manner, not only my Writings (of which being publick the Publick may judge) but my Person, Morals, and Family, whereof to those who know me not, a truer Information may be requisite. Being divided between the Necessity to say something of Myself, and my own Laziness to undertake so awkward a Task, I thought it the shortest way to put the last hand to this Epistle. If it have any thing pleasing, it will be That by which I am most desirous to please, the Truth and the Sentiment; and if any thing offensive, it will be only to those I am least sorry to offend, the Vicious or the Ungenerous.
Many will know their own Pictures in it, there being not a Circumstance but what is true; but I have, for the most part spar'd their Names, and they may escape being laugh'd at, if they please.
I would have some of them know, it was owing to the Request of the learned and candid Friend to whom it is inscribed, that I make not as free use of theirs as they have done of mine. However I shall have this Advantage, and Honour, on my side, that whereas by their proceeding, any Abuse may be directed at any man, no Injury can possibly be done by mine, since a Nameless Character can never be found out, but by its Truth and Likeness.






















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10. Samuel Johnson's letter to Lord Chesterfield
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To The Right Honourable The Earl Of Chesterfield
7th February, 1755.
My Lord,
I have been lately informed, by the proprietor of The World, that two papers, in which my Dictionary is recommended to the public, were written by your lordship. To be so distinguished is an honour which, being very little accustomed to favours from the great, I know not well how to receive, or in what terms to acknowledge.
When, upon some slight encouragement, I first visited your lordship, I was overpowered, like the rest of mankind, by the enchantment of your address, and could not forbear to wish that I might boast myself Le vainqueur du vainqueur de la terre;—that I might obtain that regard for which I saw the world contending; but I found my attendance so little encouraged, that neither pride nor modesty would suffer me to continue it. When I had once addressed your Lordship in public, I had exhausted all the art of pleasing which a retired and uncourtly scholar can possess. I had done all that I could; and no man is well pleased to have his all neglected, be it ever so little.
Seven years, my lord, have now passed, since I waited in your outward rooms, or was repulsed from your door; during which time I have been pushing on my work through difficulties, of which it is useless to complain, and have brought it, at last, to the verge of publication, without one act of assistance (1), one word of encouragement, or one smile of favour. Such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a patron before.
The shepherd in Virgil grew at last acquainted with Love, and found him a native of the rocks.
Is not a patrons my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help? The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been kind; but it has been delayed till I am indifferent, and cannot enjoy it: till I am solitary, and cannot impart it; (2) till I am known, and do not want it. I hope it is no very cynical asperity not to confess obligations where no benefit has been received, or to be unwilling that the public should consider me as owing that to a patron, which providence has enabled me to do for myself.
Having carried on my work thus far with so little obligation to any favourer of learning, I shall not be disappointed though I should conclude it, if less be possible, with less; for I have been long wakened from that dream of hope, in which I once boasted myself with so much exultation,

My Lord,
Your lordship's most humble,
most obedient servant,
SAM. JOHNSON.

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12. Gray: Elegy
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Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" was first published in 1751. Gray may, however, have begun writing the poem in 1742, shortly after the death of his close friend Richard West. An elegy is a poem which laments the dead. Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" is noteworthy in that it mourns the death not of great or famous people, but of common men. The speaker of this poem sees a country churchyard at sunset, which impels him to meditate on the nature of human mortality. The poem invokes the classical idea of memento mori, a Latin phrase which states plainly to all mankind, "Remember that you must die." The speaker considers the fact that in death, there is no difference between great and common people. He goes on to wonder if among the lowly people buried in the churchyard there had been any natural poets or politicians whose talent had simply never been discovered or nurtured. This thought leads him to praise the dead for the honest, simple lives that they lived.
Gray did not produce a great deal of poetry; the "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," however, has earned him a respected and deserved place in literary history. The poem was written at the end of the Augustan Age and at the beginning of the Romantic period, and the poem has characteristics associated with both literary periods. On the one hand, it has the ordered, balanced phrasing and rational sentiments of Neoclassical poetry. On the other hand, it tends toward the emotionalism and individualism of the Romantic poets; most importantly, it idealizes and elevates the common man.


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13. Ode to Evening - William Collins (1721-1759)
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1 If aught of oaten stop, or pastoral song,
2 May hope, chaste Eve, to soothe thy modest ear,
3 Like thy own solemn springs,
4 Thy springs and dying gales,
5 O nymph reserv'd, while now the bright-hair'd sun
6 Sits in yon western tent, whose cloudy skirts,
7 With brede ethereal wove,
8 O'erhang his wavy bed:
9 Now air is hush'd, save where the weak-ey'd bat,
10 With short shrill shriek, flits by on leathern wing,
11 Or where the beetle winds
12 His small but sullen horn,
13 As oft he rises 'midst the twilight path,
14 Against the pilgrim borne in heedless hum:
15 Now teach me, maid compos'd,
16 To breathe some soften'd strain,
17 Whose numbers stealing thro' thy dark'ning vale
18 May not unseemly with its stillness suit,
19 As musing slow, I hail
20 Thy genial lov'd return!
21 For when thy folding-star arising shows
22 His paly circlet, at his warning lamp
23 The fragrant Hours, and elves
24 Who slept in flow'rs the day,
25 And many a nymph who wreathes her brows with sedge,
26 And sheds the fresh'ning dew, and, lovelier still,
27 The pensive Pleasures sweet,
28 Prepare thy shadowy car.
29 Then lead, calm vot'ress, where some sheety lake
30 Cheers the lone heath, or some time-hallow'd pile,
31 Or upland fallows grey
32 Reflect its last cool gleam.
33 But when chill blust'ring winds, or driving rain,
34 Forbid my willing feet, be mine the hut
35 That from the mountain's side
36 Views wilds, and swelling floods,
37 And hamlets brown, and dim-discover'd spires,
38 And hears their simple bell, and marks o'er all
39 Thy dewy fingers draw
40 The gradual dusky veil.
41 While Spring shall pour his show'rs, as oft he wont,
42 And bathe thy breathing tresses, meekest Eve;
43 While Summer loves to sport
44 Beneath thy ling'ring light;
45 While sallow Autumn fills thy lap with leaves;
46 Or Winter, yelling thro' the troublous air,
47 Affrights thy shrinking train,
48 And rudely rends thy robes;
49 So long, sure-found beneath the sylvan shed,
50 Shall Fancy, Friendship, Science, rose-lipp'd Health,
51 Thy gentlest influence own,
52 And hymn thy fav'rite name!


Notes
1] The text is from Dodsley's Collection of Poems (1748) and evidently constitutes a later revision by Collins. The stanza is an imitation of Milton's translation of Horace, Odes, 1, 5: "What slender youth, bedew'd with liquid odours, / Courts thee on roses in some pleasant cave, / Pyrrha. For whom bind'st thou / In wreaths thy golden hair?" And this, in turn, is an attempt to reproduce in English the metre of the original: "Quis multa gracilis te puer in rosa / Perfusus liquidis urget odoribus, / Grato, Pyrrha, sub antro? / Cui flavam religas comam?"
Cf. Milton, Comus, 345: "Our sound of pastoral reed with oaten stops."
7] brede: antiquated for braid, embroidery.
10] Cf. Spenser, The Faerie Queene, II, xii, 36: "The leather-winged bat, day's enemy."
17] numbers: cadences.
23] Hours: in classic myth, the attendants on the day and the seasons.

Summary(partial)
25th March 2002 "Pastoral: any work which represents a withdrawal from ordinary life to a place apart, close to the elemental rhythms of nature, where a person achieves a new perspective on life in the complex social world." [Abrams, 1988] By careful examination of 'Ode to Evening' by William Collins and two other poems of your choice, consider how appropriate you find this definition of poetry written before 1770. Abrams' definition of pastoral is a relatively modern one, and moves away from the classical interpretation of pastoral. In ancient times, pastoral poetry, as prominently practised by Virgil, was about shepherds in a utopian idyll known as Arcadia. Some of these conventions can still be found in modern poetry, as well as those written before 1770, but not all poetry has been influenced in this way. Ballads, for example, depict rural life, but it is more realistic than the traditional pastorals, and...

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14.To a Mouse - On Turning Her Up in Her Nest With the Plow
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By Robert Burns Written in 1785 and Published in 1786
Text of the Poem Literal Rendering of the Poem
Wee, sleekit, cow’rin, tim’rous beastie,
O, what a panic’s in thy breastie!
Thou need na start awa sae hasty,
Wi’ bickering brattle!
I wad be laith to rin an’ chase thee, 5
Wi’ murd’ring pattle!
I’m truly sorry man’s dominion,
Has broken nature’s social union,
An’ justifies that ill opinion,
Which makes thee startle 10
At me, thy poor, earth-born companion,
An’ fellow-mortal!
I doubt na, whiles, but thou may thieve;
What then? poor beastie, thou maun live!
A daimen icker in a thrave 15
’S a sma’ request;
I’ll get a blessin wi’ the lave,
An’ never miss’t!
Thy wee bit housie, too, in ruin!
It’s silly wa’s the win’s are strewin! 20
An’ naething, now, to big a new ane,
O’ foggage green!
An’ bleak December’s winds ensuin,
Baith snell an’ keen!
Thou saw the fields laid bare an’ waste, 25
An’ weary winter comin fast,
An’ cozie here, beneath the blast,
Thou thought to dwell—
Till crash! the cruel coulter past
Out thro’ thy cell. 30
That wee bit heap o’ leaves an’ stibble,
Has cost thee mony a weary nibble!
Now thou’s turn’d out, for a’ thy trouble,
But house or hald,
To thole the winter’s sleety dribble, 35
An’ cranreuch cauld!
But, Mousie, thou art no thy lane,
In proving foresight may be vain;
The best-laid schemes o’ mice an’ men
Gang aft agley, 40
An’ lea’e us nought but grief an’ pain,
For promis’d joy!
Still thou art blest, compar’d wi’ me
The present only toucheth thee:
But, Och! I backward cast my e’e. 45
On prospects drear!
An’ forward, tho’ I canna see,
I guess an’ fear! Tiny, sleek, cowering, fearful mouse,
O, what a panic is in your breast!
You need not start away so hasty,
With pattering noises!
I would be loath to run and chase you,
With my murdering spade!
I'm truly sorry that my world,
Has broken into your world,
And justifies your ill opinion of men,
Which makes you startle
At me, you poor, earth-born companion,
And fellow mortal!
I doubt not that at times you may steal;
What then? poor little animal, you must live!
An occasional ear of corn out of twenty-four sheaves
Is a small request;
I'll be blest with the rest of the corn,
And never miss the ear you took!
Your tiny house, too, in ruin!
Its fragile walls the winds are strewing!
And nothing, now, to build a new one,
Out of densely growing grass!
And bleak December's winds are following,
Both harsh and keen!
You saw the fields were bare and desolate,
And weary winter coming fast,
And cozy here, beneath the wind,
You thought to dwell—
Till crash! the cruel plowshare passed
Right through your cell.
That little heap of leaves and stubble,
Has cost you many a weary nibble!
Now you are turned out, for all your trouble,
Of house and home,
To endure the winter's sleety dribble,
And hoarfrost cold!
But, Mousie, you are not alone,
In proving foresight may be vain;
The best-laid schemes of mice and men
Go often astray,
And leave us nothing but grief and pain,
For promised joy!
Still you are blest, compared with me
The present only touches you:
But, Oh! I backward cast my eye.
On prospects dreary!
And forward, though I cannot see,
I guess and fear!

Summary
After a farmer plows up a mouse's nest, he apologizes to the tiny creature while assuring it that he means no harm. He also says he does not mind that the mouse occasionally steals an ear of corn. After all, the farmer reaps a bounty of food from the land; surely, he cannot begrudge the mouse a tiny harvest of its own. Finally, he tells the mouse that it is not alone in failing to build wisely for the future; men fail at that too.

Type of Work
"To a Mouse" is a vernacular poem in an English dialect called Scots. It contains eight stanzas, each with six lines. Its rhyme scheme and metrical patterns are as follows:

Rhyme
In each stanza, the first line rhymes with the second, third, and fifth, and the fourth line rhymes with the sixth. Thus, the rhyme scheme is aaabab. The types of end rhyme used include masculine rhyme, as in thrave and lave (Lines 15 and 17); feminine rhyme, as in stibble and nibble (Lines 31 and 32); and near rhyme, as in thieve and live (Lines 13 and 14).

Meter
The first, second, third, and fifth lines of each stanza are in iambic tetrameter, with catalexis (an extra syllable) occurring in some of the lines. The fourth and sixth lines of each stanza are in iambic dimeter, with catalexis occurring in some lines. Following is an example of iambic tetrameter with catalexis (the syllable in red type):
..........1...............2...........3................4......
Wee SLEEK | it COW | rin TIM| rous BEASTie
......1.......... ..2......... ....3...............4
O WHAT | a PAN | ic's IN | thy BREASTie
Here is an example of standard iambic tetrameter (without catalexis):
.......1...............2.................3................4......
I DOUBT.| na WHILES.| butTHOU | mayTHIEVE
.........1..................2.................3...............4......
What THEN? | poor BEAST | tie THOU | maun LIVE
Following is an example of iambic dimeter:
.......1...............2.......
On PRO | spects DREAR

Publication Information
"To a Mouse" was written in 1785 and published in Kilmarnock, Scotland, on July 31, 1786, as part of a collection of Burns's poems entitled Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect.

Themes

Respect Earth and Its Creatures
In "To a Mouse," Robert Burns develops the theme of respect for nature's creatures, especially the small, the defenseless, the downtrodden (or, in this case, the uprooted). As a wee creature, the mouse represents not only lowly animals but also lowly human beings–common folk who are often tyrannized by the high and the mighty.

Foolproof Plans Can Go Awry
In the seventh stanza (Lines 27-42), Burns observes that "the best-laid schemes o’ mice an’ men" often go wrong. This theme can apply not only to the mouse's construction of a nest but also to a human being's construction of a political system or a war plan. Napoleon learned this lesson at Waterloo.

Use of Diminutives
Notice that Burns uses diminutives such as beastie and Mousie to suggest smallness and to endear the mouse to the reader. Webster's New World Dictionary & Thesaurus (Accent Software International, Macmillan Publishers, Version 2.0, 1998) defines diminutive as "a word or name formed from another by the addition of a suffix expressing smallness in size, or sometimes, endearment or condescension, as ringlet (ring + -let), Jackie (Jack + -ie), lambkin (lamb + -kin)."

Setting
The time is the late Seventeenth Century. The place is a farm in Scotland. Burns, a farmer, was plowing a field when he uprooted the nest of a mouse. Later, he wrote "To a Mouse" to apologize to the "wee beastie" for evicting it from its home.

Characters
The Narrator: The poet Burns, a farmer, who uproots a mouse's nest while plowing a field.
The Mouse: A wee creature that scurries off in fear of the human invader.

Glossary of Words From the Poem : Presented in Order of Occurrence

Wee: Tiny, little
Sleekit: (1) Sleek, smooth, shiny; (2) sly, sneaky
Cow'rin: Cowering (crouching from fear; trembling)
Tim'rous: Timorous (fearful)
Beastie: Tiny animal
Breastie: Breast
Na: Not
Awa: Away
Sae: So
Wi': With
Bickering: Moving while making little noises
Brattle: Succession of noises
Pattle: Long-handled spade to remove earth from the blade of a plow
Wad: Would
Laith: Loath (reluctant, unwilling)
Rin: Run
An': And
Murd'ring: Murdering
Whiles: Sometimes, at times
Maun: Must
Daimen: Occasional, infrequent
Icker: Ear
Thrave: Twenty-four sheaves of grain. A sheaf is a bundle of cut grain stalks.
'S: Is
Sma': Small
Blessin: Blessing
Lave: What is left; what remains
Miss't: Miss it
Housie: House
Silly: Weak, fragile, feeble
Wa's: Walls
Win's: Winds
Strewin': Strewing
Naething: Nothing
Big: Build
Ane: One
O': Of
Foggage: Densely growing grass; wildly growing grass;
Ensuin': Ensuing (following)
Baith: Both
Snell: Harsh, bitter, severe
Cozie: Cozy
Coulter: Plowshare (blade of a plow)
Past: Passed
Thro': Through
Cell: Nest, dwelling
Stibble: Stubble
Mony: Many
Thou's: You are
A': All
Hald: Home
Thole: Endure, sustain
Cranreuch: Hoarfrost (dew on grass and plants that freezes)
Cauld: Cold
No thy lane: Not alone
Gang: Go
Aft: Often
Agley: Astray
Lea'e: Leave
Nought: Nothing
Promis'd: Promised
Compar'd: Compared
Och: Interjection expressing regret, exasperation, disapproval, or disgust
E'e: Eye
Canna: Cannot .



Study Questions and Essay Topics
1. Write an essay that explains the serious messages in this poem.
2. Why does this poem remain fresh and relevant for modern readers?
3. Discuss schemes of businessmen and politicians that "gang aft agley."
4. The subtitle of the poem refers to the mouse as a female. Would the poem have less impact if it were about a male?
5. English varies from country to country and from region to region (or from social class to social class) within a country. For example, ....Americans refer to the luggage compartment of a car as a trunk, and Englishmen refer to it as a boot. Here are other examples: truck ....(U.S.), lorry (England); while (U.S.), whilst (England); elevator (U.S.), lift (England); corn (U.S.), maize
(England). In England, members ....of the working class often drop the h sound at the beginning of words such as hat or had. "To a Mouse" is written in an ....English-language dialect called Scots. As is readily apparent in the poem, this Scottish dialect contains many words not used in ....standard English. Write an informative essay about the peculiarities of the English spoken where you live. You might note, for example, ....that people in your area refer to the dressing ladeled on mashed potatoes as sauce but that others refer to it as gravy. Or, you might ....point out that you use the word pop to refer to what others call soda or soft drink or that you use the word lightning bug to refer to a ....firefly or glowworm.



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15.1 Ah! Sunflower
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Ah, Sunflower! weary of time,
Who countest the steps of the sun,
Seeking after that sweet golden clime
Where the traveller's journey is done;

Where the youth pined away with desire
And the pale virgin shrouded in snow
Arise from their graves, and aspire
Where my Sunflower wishes to go.

In this poem the Sunflower, which traditionally looks like the sun and always turns its face to the sun, yearns to escape, partly from the sun and from what the sun represents, Time. Where the sunflower seeks to go is not clear, except that it is to a region out of or beyond time, a place either of rest and completion, or of exhausted desire, or of cold virginity (associated here with death and unacted desire). The actual destination aimed for is perhaps less important than the fact that the sunflower, rather than joyously rejoicing in life (the spirit of the Songs of Innocence), is here tired and weary of life



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15.2 The Sick Rose
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O Rose, thou art sick!
The invisible worm
That flies in the night,
In the howling storm,

Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy;
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy.

Many have seen this poem as directly sexual, in its references to venereal disease and to the corruption of the innocent Rose by the masculine "invisible worm" of sexual experience. Certainly the poem draws on these, but it should also be read less literally, relying on the traditional associations of the Rose (Love, the young girl) in its depiction of an altered state of psychological (and spiritual) awareness. The sickness, however, may well be an internal psychological sickness that comes from unacted desires within the Rose ("Sooner murder an infant in its cradle than nurse unacted desires", from the 'Proverbs of Hell' in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell) rather than corruption forced from outside. This is a recurrent theme in the Songs of Experience

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16.1 Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey - a poem by William Wordsworth
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Five years have passed; five summers, with the length
Of five long winters! and again I hear
These waters, rolling from their mountain-springs
With a soft inland murmur.Once again
Do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs,
That on a wild secluded scene impress
Thoughts of more deep seclusion; and connect
The landscape with the quiet of the sky.
The day is come when I again repose
Here, under this dark sycamore, and view
These plots of cottage-ground, these orchard-tufts,
Which at this season, with their unripe fruits,
Are clad in one green hue, and lose themselves
'Mid groves and copses. Once again I see
These hedgerows, hardly hedgerows, little lines
Of sportive wood run wild; these pastoral farms,
Green to the very door; and wreaths of smoke
Sent up, in silence, from among the trees!
With some uncertain notice, as might seem
Of vagrant dwellers in the houseless woods,
Or of some Hermit's cave, where by his fire
The Hermit sits alone.

These beauteous forms,
Through a long absence, have not been to me
As is a landscape to a blind man's eye;
But oft, in lonely rooms, and 'mid the din
Of towns and cities, I have owed to them,
In hours of weariness, sensations sweet,
Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart;
And passing even into my purer mind
With tranquil restoration feelings too
Of unremembered pleasure; such, perhaps,
As have no slight or trivial influence
On that best portion of a good man's life,
His little, nameless, unremembered, acts
Of kindness and of love.Nor less, I trust,
To them I may have owed another gift,
Of aspect more sublime; that blessed mood,
In which the burthen of the mystery,
In which the heavy and the weary weight
Of all this unintelligible world,
Is lightened that serene and blessed mood,
In which the affections gently lead us on
Until, the breath of this corporeal frame
And even the motion of our human blood
Almost suspended, we are laid asleep
In body, and become a living soul;
While with an eye made quiet by the power
Of harmony, and the deep power of joy,
We see into the life of things.

If this
Be but a vain belief, yet, oh! how oft
In darkness and amid the many shapes
Of joyless daylight; when the fretful stir
Unprofitable, and the fever of the world,
Have hung upon the beatings of my heart
How oft, in spirit, have I turned to thee,
O sylvan Wye! thou wanderer through the woods,
How often has my spirit turned to thee!

And now, with gleams of half-extinguished thought,
With many recognitions dim and faint,
And somewhat of a sad perplexity,
The picture of the mind revives again;
While here I stand, not only with the sense
Of present pleasure, but with pleasing thoughts
That in this moment there is life and food
For future years.And so I dare to hope,
Though changed, no doubt, from what I was when first
I came among these hills; when like a roe
I bounded o'er the mountains, by the sides
Of the deep rivers, and the lonely streams,
Wherever nature led more like a man
Flying from something that he dreads than one
Who sought the thing he loved.For nature then
(The coarser pleasures of my boyish days
And their glad animal movements all gone by)
To me was all in all. I cannot paint
What then I was. The sounding cataract
Haunted me like a passion; the tall rock,
The mountain, and the deep and gloomy wood,
Their colors and their forms, were then to me
An appetite; a feeling and a love,
That had no need of a remoter charm,
By thought supplied, not any interest
Unborrowed from the eye. That time is past,
And all its aching joys are now no more,
And all its dizzy raptures. Not for this
Faint I, nor mourn nor murmur; other gifts
Have followed; for such loss, I would believe,
Abundant recompense.For I have learned
To look on nature, not as in the hour
Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes
The still sad music of humanity,
Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power
To chasten and subdue.And I have felt
A presence that disturbs me with the joy
Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime
Of something far more deeply interfused,
Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
And the round ocean and the living air,
And the blue sky, and in the mind of man:
A motion and a spirit, that impels
All thinking things, all objects of all thought,
And rolls through all things. Therefore am I still
A lover of the meadows and the woods,
And mountains; and of all that we behold
From this green earth; of all the mighty world
Of eye, and ear both what they half create,
And what perceive; well pleased to recognize
In nature and the language of the sense
The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse,
The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul
Of all my moral being.

Nor perchance,
If I were not thus taught, should I the more
Suffer my genial spirits to decay:
For thou art with me here upon the banks
Of this fair river; thou my dearest Friend,
My dear, dear Friend; and in thy voice I catch
The language of my former heart, and read
My former pleasures in the shooting lights
Of thy wild eyes.Oh! yet a little while
May I behold in thee what I was once,
My dear, dear Sister! and this prayer I make,
Knowing that Nature never did betray
The heart that loved her; 'tis her privilege,
Through all the years of this our life, to lead
From joy to joy: for she can so inform
The mind that is within us, so impress
With quietness and beauty, and so feed
With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues,
Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men,
Nor greetings where no kindness is, nor all
The dreary intercourse of daily life,
Shall e'er prevail against us, or disturb
Our cheerful faith, that all which we behold
Is full of blessings.Therefore let the moon
Shine on thee in thy solitary walk;
And let the misty mountain winds be free
To blow against thee: and, in after years,
When these wild ecstasies shall be matured
Into a sober pleasure; when thy mind
Shall be a mansion for all lovely forms,
Thy memory be as a dwelling place
For all sweet sounds and harmonies; oh! then,
If solitude, or fear, or pain, or grief,
Should be thy portion, with what healing thoughts
Of tender joy wilt thou remember me,
And these my exhortations! Nor, perchance
If I should be where I no more can hear
Thy voice, nor catch from thy wild eyes these gleams
Of past existence wilt thou then forget
That on the banks of this delightful stream
We stood together; and that I, so long
A worshipper of Nature, hither came
Unwearied in that service; rather say
With warmer love oh! with far deeper zeal
Of holier love.Nor wilt thou then forget,
That after many wanderings, many years
Of absence, these steep woods and lofty cliffs,
And this green pastoral landscape, were to me
More dear, both for themselves and for thy sake!


Notes:
• Lines 1-24: . Revisiting the natural beauty of the Wye area filled the poet with "tranquil restoration".
• Line 37: By sublime, Wordsworth means a type of divine creativity/inspiration.
• Lines 35-49: Here Wordsworth goes on to say that the gifts given to him by the abbey (the tranquil restoration, etc.) have in themselves given him another gift, one that is even more sublime. Nature itself has relieved Wordsworth of a giant burden. This burden is the questioning of God/religion/purpose of life.
"Lines composed a few miles above Tintern Abbey on revisiting the banks of the Wye during a tour, July 13, 1798" (often abbreviated to Tintern Abbey or Lines) is a poem written by William Wordsworth. The poem's seeming emphasis on nature makes it a characteristic work of the Romantic movement but belies its true message of revolution and dark deeds from the mentioned anniversary date. Tintern Abbey is an abbey abandoned in 1536 and located in the Welsh county of Monmouthshire.The poem is of particular interest in that Wordsworth's descriptions of the Banks of Wye outline his general philosophies on nature.
The significance of this poem is that it is the last poem in Lyrical Ballads - it is a poem of re-visitation, both to the central themes of the Advertisement, and to nature itself. Wordsworth is revisiting this place after 5 years of absence, and we learn that he has changed since then ('I cannot paint what then I was'). He is revisiting a place where once he had no knowledge of the sublime, and no 'feeling' towards nature; now however he has.
The poem is written in blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter). Though Wordsworth wrote this poem in 1798, the subject is of what he remembers from 1793. This poem takes place in the poet's mind. Wordsworth's emphasis in the beginning of "five years have passed…" and constantly using the word "again" shows that time is important for this poem.

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17. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
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By Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)

Summary

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner begins with a one-paragraph summary
called an "Argument." The poem then begins.
.
.......Three men are on their way to a wedding reception when an old sailor stops one of them to tell him a story. So eager is the old fellow to tell his tale that he raises on hand to prevent the wedding guest from moving on. The mariner then begins the story–“There was a ship”–but is unable to continue because the wedding guest angrily orders the mariner to cease blocking his way.
.......But after the old man lowers his hand, the guest cannot continue on, for he is hypnotized by the mariner’s “glittering eye.” Like a three-year-old child eager for a wonderful story, the guest sits on a rock and listens.
.......The mariner says the ship sailed southward on the Atlantic Ocean with a fair wind. The sun rose from the sea, crossed the sky, and sank in the west in its daily ritual as all went well while ship sailed onward day after day. Even though the wedding guest hears music from the nearby wedding celebration, he keeps his attention riveted on the old mariner and his tale.
.......Alas, a great storm came, the mariner says, driving the ship farther south as it passed through mist and snow to a land of ice, Antarctica. Everywhere the crewmen looked they saw ice. Then, out of the fog, a great sea bird appeared–an albatross. And, wonder of wonders, the ice around the ship cracked, and the ship picked up a wind and sailed north. The albatross, therefore, was a good omen. It came to the ship every day, answering the mariner's “hollo!” It played. It ate of the crewmen’s food. During the evening religious services, called vespers, it perched on a mast or a rope.
.......Then one day, the mariner shot the bird with his crossbow. The rest of the crew condemned his cruel act, saying he had “killed the bird / That made the breeze to blow.” However, when the fog disappeared and the sun shone gloriously, they approved the act, saying he “had killed the bird / That brought the fog and mist.” And so, the crew became partners in his crime.
.......But not long afterward, the sails fell as the air grew still. Day after day, under a boiling sun, the ship hardly moved. It was “As idle as a painted ship / Upon a painted ocean.” And the men thirsted–in the middle of an ocean with water everywhere. They saw slimy creatures crawling on the sea, and at night they beheld a fire dancing on the ropes and chains that control the masts–an ill omen. (Sailors at sea often saw this phenomenon, known as St. Elmo’s fire. It is electricity discharged from pointed objects, such as masts, during storms. The phenomenon can also be seen on land on trees or towers that rise to a point. Today, it can also be seen in the air on wings and propellers of aircraft.) Blaming the mariner for their woes, the crewmen hung the dead albatross around his neck.
.......As each man weakened with thirst and fatigue, the mariner beheld a sign in the sky–a mere speck that grew into a mist and took shape upon its approach. It appeared to be a ship. The men were heartened. But what kind of ship moves without a wind? When the sun was setting, the vessel drew near and revealed itself as a ghostly “skeleton ship” with only two crew members. One was a specter woman–“Life-in-Death”–with red lips, yellow hair, and white skin. The other was her mate, Death. They rolled dice for the crewmen, and Death won everyone except the ancient mariner. He was the prize of Life-in-Death.
.......All the crew–200 men–then dropped dead one by one, all except the mariner. Their souls flew by him, to heaven or hell, like arrows shot from a crossbow. The wedding guest interrupts the narrative at this point to express his fear of the mariner. After all, the old man could also be a departed soul, a ghost. But the mariner assures him that he is flesh and blood, then continues his tale.
.......Now he was alone on the ocean with only slimy sea creatures to keep him company. He tried to pray but failed. The lifeless crewmen, meanwhile, looked up at him with a never-changing gaze, fixed by death. For seven days and nights, he endured their gaze. During this time, at night in the moonlight, he watched the water snakes–“blue, glossy green, and velvet black”–swim and coil. Their sleek beauty touched him, and he found himself blessing them. He also found that he was able to pray; in short, he was beginning to regret shooting the albatross. Suddenly, the albatross fell from his neck and sank into the sea. And then the mariner slipped into a gentle sleep, for which he thanked Mary, the holy Mother who is Queen of heaven. When he awakened, rain was falling and wind was roaring. Although the wind did not reach the ship, the ship began to move–and the dead crewmen rose to man the ship–steering, tugging the ropes. The body of his brother’s son helped him pull on a rope, though he spoke no words.
.......The wedding guest again interrupts to express his fear. But the mariner again calms him and resumes the story, as follows. At dawn, the ghostly crewmen let loose the ropes and made a “sweet sound” mingled with the songs of birds. It was an angelic symphony. The ship sailed on. A spirit, it seemed, was moving the ship. Then the ship began to rock and bob–and suddenly lurched forward, causing the mariner to fall in a faint. When he came to, he heard two spirit voices. One asked whether this was the man who shot the albatross. The other, confirming that it was, said the mariner had done penance for his wrongdoing but still had more penance to do.
.......The ship began to sail northward at such a great speed that the mariner went into a trance. When the mariner woke up, the ship was sailing gently onward. All the dead crewmen were standing together, staring at the mariner. A wind–like a gale across a meadow in the spring–began to blow, tousling the mariner’s hair and cooling his cheek. The ship picked up speed and soon the mariner saw a lighthouse, a hill, and a church. It was his native land at long last.
.......The water in the harbor bay was calm, reflecting the light of the moon. On the ship, the corpses were no longer standing but lying “lifeless and flat.” Over each body was a seraph (an angel), giving off a heavenly light that could be seen on the shore. Soon a boat came rowing forth carrying a Pilot, the Pilot’s boy, and a “Hermit good” singing hymns. The Hermit, who lived in woods near the sea and knelt on moss to pray, loved to talk with sailors from afar. When the boat drew close, the mariner heard them say that the ship looked strange. “It hath a fiendish look,” the Pilot said. Suddenly, the ship sank, rumbling down and leaving the mariner floating helplessly. But in a moment he was in the Pilot’s boat, which whirled round and round. When seeing the mariner’s face, the Pilot fell down in a fit and the Hermit prayed. The mariner took up oars and began rowing. At that, the boy laughed, observing that “the Devil knows how to row.”
.......After the boat reached land, the mariner begged the Hermit to hear his confession and absolve him of his sins. “What manner of man art thou?” the Hermit said. And the mariner told him his tale. Since that the time, the mariner says, he has felt a compulsion to travel from land to land. It is his penance. Whenever he remembers his experience at sea–the terror of it all–he must stop someone to tell him his story in order to relieve his agony. He knows at a mere glance which man he must single out to listen to the tale.
.......The wedding celebration continues while the mariner hears a vesper bell calling him to prayer. It is far sweeter to him to pray to God, he says, than it would be to enjoy the pleasure of a wedding celebration. The mariner notes that a man prays best “who loveth best / All things both great and small”–that is, who loves all of the things that God created.
.......The mariner then walks on. So does the wedding guest, as if stunned. But he is a “sadder and wiser man.”

Characters
Ancient Mariner Old sailor who roams from country to country to tell a strange tale.
Wedding Guest Man on the way to a wedding reception with two other men. The mariner singles out the wedding guest to hear his tale.
Two Hundred Crewmen Ill-fated members of the ship carrying the mariner.
Pilot Boatman who rescues the mariner. (A pilot is an official who guides ships into and out of a harbor.)
Pilot’s Boy Pilot’s assistant.
Hermit Holy man who absolves the mariner and hears his story.
Albatross Large, web-footed sea bird with a hooked bill. Most species of albatrosses wander the southern seas, from tropical regions down to Antarctica, drinking sea water and feeding on squid, cuttlefish, and other small sea creatures. Sometimes, they follow ships to feed on their garbage. Albatrosses have an astonishing ability to glide in the wind, sometimes for hours, but have difficulty staying aloft without a wind. In the latter case, they sit on the water to rest or sleep. When it is time to breed, they go ashore. An old superstition says killing an albatross brings bad luck, although sailors have been known to kill and eat them. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner has helped make this superstition common knowledge throughout the world among landlubbers as well as sailors. In modern parlance, a person or an event that brings bad luck is often referred to as an albatross.

Setting
The time is the late Middle Ages. The places are as follows: (1) a street or byway in a locale with a hall in which a wedding reception is being held; (2) a sailing ship with 201 crew members, including the ancient mariner; (3) the Atlantic Ocean; (4) the South Pole; (4) the Pacific Ocean; (5) the mariner’s native country (undisclosed). The atmosphere is ghostly, preternatural, mysterious.
Themes
Theme 1 Man is a sinful creature, but redemption awaits him if he repents his wrongdoing and does penance. This theme manifests itself as follows: First, the ancient mariner kills the albatross, committing a sin. Then, during his terrifying experience, he has a change of heart and is sorry for his sin. Finally, after confessing to the Hermit, he carries out a penance, which is to travel the world and tell his tale to strangers.
Theme 2 Man should respect all of God’s creation, of which the albatross is a part. In doing so, he respects the Creator Himself.
Theme 3 Guilt and justice hound sinners until they repent their wrongdoing. In The Rime of the Ancient Mariner guilt and justice appear in the form of strange natural phenomena, as well as spirits.
Theme 4 All creatures “great and small” are worthy in some way. The mariner discovers that even the snakes of the ocean can be beautiful.
Date of Publication, Sources
The poem was published in 1798, then revised and published in 1817 in the version that is popular today. Sources used by Coleridge include superstitions, folk tales, and real-life sea voyages in which crews had bad luck or sailed to mysterious lands. Coleridge also received help from the poet William Wordsworth. The editors of Major British Writers, a literature anthology, explain Wordsworth's contribution:
Originally, Coleridge and Wordsworth intended to write this poem in collaboration. Wordsworth’s manner proved unsuited for the purpose, however, and after contributing half a dozen lines [Part II, Lines 13-16 and Lines 226-227] and suggesting the shooting of the albatross and “the reanimation of the dead bodies to work the ship,” Wordsworth withdrew, and Coleridge proceeded alone.–G.B. Harrison, general ed. Major British Writers. Shorter edition. New York: Harcourt, 1967, Page 592.

Structure, Rhyme, and Meter
Coleridge divides the poem into seven parts. Most of the stanzas in the poem have four lines; several have five or six lines. In the four-line stanzas, the second and fourth lines usually rhyme. In the five- and six-line stanzas, the second or third line usually rhymes with the final line. The meter alternates between iambic tetrameter (with four feet per line) and iambic trimeter (with three feet per line). Following is an example (the first four lines of Part II) of a stanza with this pattern:
.......1...............2..............3...........4
"The SUN | now ROSE | upON | the RIGHT:
......1...........2..............3
Out OF | the SEA | came HE,
......1............2.............3............4
Still HID | in MIST, | and ON | the LEFT
.........1...............2...........3
Went DOWN | inTO | the SEA.

Main Symbols
The Ancient Mariner as Adam Adam committed the original sin that brought woe upon mankind. The original sin in this context is the killing of the albatross. The crewmen are inheritors of the mariner’s original sin, just as Christians are inheritors of Adam’s original sin. As the mariner says, "And I had done an hellish thing, And it would work 'em woe."
The Ancient Mariner as Christian Sinner When the ancient mariner kills the albatross (described in the poem as a holy thing “hailed in God’s name"), he is like the Christian who commits sins for which Christ died on the cross.
Crossbow as Christ's Cross The mariner shoots the albatross with a crossbow, a weapon with the same shape as the cross on which Christ died.
Ghost Ship as Wages of Sin The ghostly skeleton ship carries Death and Life-in-Death. Death, of course, is a consequence of original sin. Life-in-Death is the loneliness, the separation from God, that a sinner encounters before dying.
Pilot The boat Pilot rescues the mariner after the ship sinks, representing the saving grace of a merciful God.
Hermit The Hermit represents redemption. He hears the mariner's confession and pronounces a penance, requiring the mariner to tell his tale the world over to warn others of the consequences of sin.
Wedding Celebration Everyday life that continues merrily without its participants' full knowledge and respect of the higher rules of the universe. As part of his penance, the mariner educates one of the wedding guests about the importance abiding by the laws of God. The scene of a wedding celebration is, of course, an excellent place for the mariner to tell his story. After all, a marriage is a beginning, and new life will come from it. Will the newlyweds and their children abide by God's laws? Or will they thoughtlessly shoot albatrosses? Perhaps the wedding guest who walks on at the end of the poem will pass on his new insights to the bride, the groom, and others at the wedding feast.
.
Poem as Frame Tale
Note that the author begins the poem by telling the reader about an ancient mariner who stops a man on the street to recite a story. After getting the man’s attention, the mariner then tells his tale. Thus, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is like a framed painting. The frame represents the author telling about the mariner; the painting represents the mariner telling his story. The mariner sometimes quotes another person, such as the Pilot. However, the Pilot is not a narrator, since he is merely speaking dialogue and not telling a story.

Climax
The climax of the poem occurs when the mariner has a change of heart and the albatross falls from his neck.

Imagery
The poem is rich in figures of speech. Here are several examples:
Alliteration
The Wedding-Guest here beat his breast,
For he heard the loud bassoon.
Simile With Alliteration
The bride hath paced into the hall,.................[hath, hall: alliteration]
Red as a rose is she....................................[Red as a rose: simile with alliteration]
Personification/Metaphor
The Sun came up upon the left,.....................[Sun referred to as "he": personification; all personifications are also metaphors]
Out of the sea came he !
And he shone bright, and on the right
Went down into the sea.
Paradox and Irony With Alliteration
Water, water, every where,............................[water, water, where: alliteration]
And all the boards did shrink ;
Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink....................................[It is ironic and paradoxical that water is everywhere but none of it can be drunk]
Synecdoche With Alliteration and Personification/Metaphor
The western wave was all a-flame...................[wave: synecdoche, because wave refers to the entire ocean]
The day was well nigh done!...........................[western wave was: alliteration]
Almost upon the western wave
Rested the broad bright Sun. . . ....................[wave rested: personification/metaphor]




Vocabulary Words From the Poem
Charnel-dungeon A charnel is a place that contains corpses; a dungeon is a dark prison beneath a medieval castle. Hence, a charnel-dungeon is an underground place for the dead.
Clifts Cliffs
Clomb Climbed
Corse Corpse; dead body
Death-fires St. Elmo’s fire
Eftsoons Immediately; now; at once
Fathom Depth measurement equaling 6 feet (1.8288 meters)
Gossameres Cobwebs
Gramercy Expression of thanks or surprise
Jargoning Chattering; singing
Ken Know
Kirk Church
Line Equator, the imaginary circle around the earth that divides the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Mast Tall structure rising from a ship to support sails, ropes, booms, etc.
Minstrelsy Group of musicians
Pilot Boatman who guides ships into and out of harbors
Rigging Ropes that support and position masts
Rood Old English word for cross, referring to the cross on which Christ was crucified; crucifix at the entrance of a chancel, the space around an altar that is reserved for clergymen or choir members.
Seraph Member of the highest-ranking order of angels, the Seraphim
Shrieve Shrive, which means to hear the confession of a sinner
Shroud Ropes or wires connected to a mast on both sides to keep in from swaying sideways
Swound Swoons; faints
Thorough Through
Tod Bush of ivy or some other plant
Wist Past tense of wit, meaning know; hence, wist means knew





















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18.1 Ode to a Nightingale - John Keats (1795-1821)
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1 My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains
2 My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,
3 Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains
4 One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk:
5 'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,
6 But being too happy in thine happiness,--
7 That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees
8 In some melodious plot
9 Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,
10 Singest of summer in full-throated ease.
11 O, for a draught of vintage! that hath been
12 Cool'd a long age in the deep-delved earth,
13 Tasting of Flora and the country green,
14 Dance, and Provençal song, and sunburnt mirth!
15 O for a beaker full of the warm South,
16 Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene,
17 With beaded bubbles winking at the brim,
18 And purple-stained mouth;
19 That I might drink, and leave the world unseen,
20 And with thee fade away into the forest dim:

21 Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget
22 What thou among the leaves hast never known,
23 The weariness, the fever, and the fret
24 Here, where men sit and hear each other groan;
25 Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs,
26 Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies;
27 Where but to think is to be full of sorrow
28 And leaden-eyed despairs,
29 Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes,
30 Or new Love pine at them beyond to-morrow.

31 Away! away! for I will fly to thee,
32 Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards,
33 But on the viewless wings of Poesy,
34 Though the dull brain perplexes and retards:
35 Already with thee! tender is the night,
36 And haply the Queen-Moon is on her throne,
37 Cluster'd around by all her starry Fays;
38 But here there is no light,
39 Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown
40 Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways.

41 I cannot see what flowers are at my feet,
42 Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs,
43 But, in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet
44 Wherewith the seasonable month endows
45 The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild;
46 White hawthorn, and the pastoral eglantine;
47 Fast fading violets cover'd up in leaves;
48 And mid-May's eldest child,
49 The coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine,
50 The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.

51 Darkling I listen; and, for many a time
52 I have been half in love with easeful Death,
53 Call'd him soft names in many a mused rhyme,
54 To take into the air my quiet breath;
55 Now more than ever seems it rich to die,
56 To cease upon the midnight with no pain,
57 While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad
58 In such an ecstasy!
59 Still wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain--
60 To thy high requiem become a sod.

61 Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird!
62 No hungry generations tread thee down;
63 The voice I hear this passing night was heard
64 In ancient days by emperor and clown:
65 Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
66 Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
67 She stood in tears amid the alien corn;
68 The same that oft-times hath
69 Charm'd magic casements, opening on the foam
70 Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.

71 Forlorn! the very word is like a bell
72 To toll me back from thee to my sole self!
73 Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well
74 As she is fam'd to do, deceiving elf.
75 Adieu! adieu! thy plaintive anthem fades
76 Past the near meadows, over the still stream,
77 Up the hill-side; and now 'tis buried deep
78 In the next valley-glades:
79 Was it a vision, or a waking dream?
80 Fled is that music:--Do I wake or sleep?


Notes
2] hemlock: a poisonous plant which produces death by paralysis.
4] Lethe: a river of the lower world from which the shades drank, and thus obtained forgetfulness of the past.
7] Dryad: a wood nymph.
9] beechen: of the beech tree.
11] draught: what can be swallowed in a single drink.
13] Flora: the goddess of flowers, here used for flowers themselves. Cf. Keats' letter to Fanny Keats ca. May 1, 1819: "O there is nothing like fine weather ... and, please heaven, a little claret-wine cool out of a cellar a mile deep -- with a few or a good many ratafia cakes -- a rocky basin to bathe in, a strawberry bed to say your prayers to Flora in" (Letters, II, 56).
14] Provençal song. In the early Middle Ages the poets of southern France, the troubadours of Provence, were particularly famous for their love lyrics.
15] warm South: a southern wine.
16] Hippocrene: a fountain on Mount Helicon in Boeotia, sacred to the Muses.
26] Tom Keats died of consumption on Dec. 1, 1818.
32] Bacchus and his pards: the Roman god of wine, whho traditionally is shown in a conveyance drawn by leopards.
33] viewless: invisible. This phrase appears in half a dozen poems from 1765 to Mary Robinson's "The Progress of Liberty" in 1806 (II, 426).
37] Fays: fairies.
43] embalmed: full of balms, or perfumes. Lines 43-49 appear to echo Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, II.i.249-52 The Riverside Shakespeare, ed. G. Blakemore Evans and J. J. M. Tobin, 2nd edn. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997):
I know a bank where the wild thyme blows,
Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows,
Quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine,
With sweet musk-roses and with eglantine ...

46] pastoral eglantine. Eglantine is properly the sweet-briar, though popularly applied to various varieties of the wild rose. "Pastoral" presumably because often referred to in pastoral poetry.
51] Darkling: in the dark; cf Milton, Paradise Lost, III, 38-40: "As the wakeful Bird/Sings darkling, and in shadiest Covert hid/Tunes her nocturnal Note."
60] high requiem: a liturgical song for the repose of the dead.
67] alien corn: alien because Ruth was not an Israelite but a Moabitess, gleaning in the barley fields of Judah (Ruth 2:1-2).

Commentary -1
Between the first three words of "Ode to a Nightingale," "My heart aches," and its last, "sleep," John Keats describes a brief personal escape from an existence whose suffering he can no longer endure. The "I" who speaks eight times in this perfect eight-stanza lyric is Keats himself, not a surrogate persona. Ambiguity, irony, and even implication have no place here, but biography does. Keats' letters show that he certainly believed the poet possessed "negative capability," the self-nullifying power to enter other things and speak as and for them. "Ode to a Nightingale" depicts one such experience. True enough, Keats leaves his "sole self" (72) to join with the nightingale in verse that briefly realizes, in human language, the ageless beauty of its unintelligible song. Yet it is Keats who does so, in May 1819, not the living reader, not some character in a dramatic monologue manipulated by a poet who stays outside his created world. During his training as a medical practitioner, Keats saw drugs like opium (3) and wine (11) deaden the pain of feverishly ill men, the aged shaking from palsy, and the consumptive young (23-26). His own brother Tom, dying of consumption at this time, lingers on in "Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies" (26).
Keats' friend Charles Brown recollected, 17 years later, how Keats wrote this ode.
In the spring of 1818 a nightingale had built her nest near my house. Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under the plum-tree, where he sat for two or three hours. When he came into the house, I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand, and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books. On inquiry, I found those scraps, four or five in number, contained his poetic feeling on the song of our nightingale. The writing was not well legible; and it was difficult to arrange the stanzas on so many scraps. With his assistance I succeeded, and this was his 'Ode to a Nightingale', a poem which has been the delight of every one.
The only surviving draft of the ode, in Keats' handwriting, is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. It appears on two half-sheets and has "an uncancelled rejected beginning ... and the first thirty lines written continuously without stanza divisions" (Stillinger 651). Perhaps this manuscript, which Keats gave to his friend J. H. Reynolds, represents a later stage of the poem than what Brown saw on four or five "scraps." Whatever the textual history may be (and we are unlikely to know much more), Brown recalls the earliest stage of composition. Keats took "his chair from the breakfast-table to the grass-plot under the plum-tree" near Brown's house and sat under it "for two or three hours," taking pleasure in the song of a nightingale that "had built her nest" there. Afterwards, Keats returned to the house with some "scraps" on which he had been writing the ode.
Keats did not record these few hours in "Ode to a Nightingale." In the poem, the bird sings "in some melodious plot / Of beechen green" (8-9), not in a plum-tree. The time is "night" or "midnight" (35, 56), not a morning after breakfast. The season is summer (10, 50), not spring. Keats' imagination transmutes what he experiences under the plum-tree. He acknowledges, for this reason, flying up to the bird "on the viewless wings of Poesy" (33) and only returning to himself when his "fancy" fails, its spell broken by a word, "forlorn" (71-74). The morning in his chair under the plum-tree stimulated the experience described by the poem, in what we now call lucid (or wide-awake) dreaming. At poem's end, Keats recognizes this when he asks, "Was it a vision, or a waking dream? / ... Do I wake or sleep?" (79-80). He has had a disorienting, transcendental experience. One moment, sightless in a pitch-black midnight, high among the leaves of a forest of trees, he was listening to the nightingale's "ecstasy"; and then suddenly he was back alone, if Brown remembers truly, under a plum-tree one morning near his house.
In retrospect, after the event, Keats describes his experience as a somatoform (bodily) dissociation, an out-of-body experience, or what parapsychologists term an OBE. Others might call it a "near-death" experience. During a critical illness, such as a heart attack, the self may appear to rise out of the dying body and to rush down a tunnel towards a light, only returning to the body when its trauma ceases. Both out-of-body and near-death experiences, available to a very large percentage of the population, are widely documented by those who had them and by other observers. A typical OBE begins when sensory input is disrupted, sometimes by drugs. The mind then feels itself float upwards out of the body to a height that has been termed "bird's-eye" or tree-high. Often the ascent may seem like travelling through a tunnel towards a bright light. Experiencing itself being divided into two, or having a dissociated double, the self may feel itself near death. Afterwards, when the mind returns to the body, the person recalls his experience, not as a dream during REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep, but as vivid or wide-awake dreaming.
"Ode to a Nightingale" opens when Keats acknowledges feeling "a drowsy numbness" that he associates with having taken drugs like hemlock or opium, or with drinking from the classical river, Lethe, which makes humanity forget what it was like to have lived. Keats then wishes to drink deeply of red wine so that he could "fade away" (20-21), leaving the suffering world for the nightingale's joyful song. What transports him, however, is the imagination. Despite the physical brain, which "perplexes and retards" (34), his mind enables him to "fly" up to the nightingale in the trees. He imagines the moon's bright light blown through "winding mossy ways" (40) but arrives in utter darkness, lacking sight and smell. He imagines himself desiring death, "Now more than ever seems it rich to die" (55), and experiencing it, becoming "a sod" (60). Imagination ends the experience it initiated. At the word "forlorn," Keats comes "back" to his "sole self," that is, the self left alone by its flying double. He becomes conscious of what he has experienced as, perhaps, "a waking dream" (79). Many facets of an OBE are here: drug-associated sensory deprivation, a flight upwards of a double mind through dark "ways" illuminated by a great light, the moon, a bird's-eye perspective among the tree-tops, a near-death experience, the descent of a double to its abandoned self, and a sense of having had a vivid dream.
Keats did not write "Ode to a Nightingale" as testimony about an "out-of-body experience"; it would not be recognized or named for more than a century. On the other hand, neither does Keats appear to invent this dissociative event or to copy it from other poets. Anyone can meditate, one fine, warm morning, about escaping from the harsh world of humanity into the countryside and its healing natural beauty. Samuel T. Coleridge did so in his lyric, "The Lime-tree Bower my Prison":
... Henceforth I shall know
That Nature ne'er deserts the wise and pure;
No plot so narrow, be but Nature there,
No waste so vacant, but may well employ
Each faculty of sense, and keep the heart
Awake to Love and Beauty! and sometimes
'Tis well to be bereft of promis'd good,
That we may lift the soul, and contemplate
With lively joy the joys we cannot share.
Some readers believe that Keats drew from Coleridge here, but despite "lift[ing] the soul," opiate Coleridge remained fully possessed, in sunlight, of himself and his senses. Keats' last six lines owe much more to Wordsworth's "The Solitary Reaper." Wordsworth described the valley maiden singing, in a strange language as "No Nightingale did ever chaunt" (9), such "plaintive numbers" (18; cf. Keats' "plaintive anthem") that, once the speaker had climbed the hill, remained in his mind as "music ... / Long after it was heard no more" (31-32). As the reaper's song "could have no ending" (26), so the voice of Keats' nightingale was "immortal," heard in "ancient days" and Biblical history as in contemporary England. Both poets cluster "plaintive," unheard "music," "hill-side," and "valley" in the context of a nightingale's song, strong evidence for influence, but Wordsworth does not allude to any dissociative experience.
Keats' "Ode to a Nightingale" springs from a poet's personal life-changing, mind-wrenching experience of a timeless paradise, a world "with no pain" (56). Only someone who has spent days tending the terminally ill can understand with what depth Keats longs for this respite. In the event's aftermath, he recreates the experience "on the viewless wings of Poesy" (33), using all his craft's resources, but with little sensory recall. The "tender" night (35) and "embalmed darkness" (43) disable his sight and leave him guessing at fragrances. Simple words like "song," "voice," "anthem," and "music" only hint at the nightingale's soul-pouring "ecstasy" (58). He imitates it with astonishingly resonant lines like "Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways" (40), and "The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves" (50). For the rest, Keats must describe the bird-song "of summer" (10) by depicting what he knows, its hearers over the centuries. To recreate the nightingale's song, we must listen in the context of human suffering. Only by being in two worlds at once, the self below, its double above, can we know the song's essential beauty. Why else did the song that "found a path / Through the sad heart of Ruth ... sick for home," leave her standing "in tears amid the alien corn" (65-67)? She was not, like Keats at the start, "too happy in thine happiness" (6). Quintessentially, we know the nightingale's song truly only when we are aware that we cannot keep it for long. It is, at heart, "plaintive" (75), that is, sorrowful.
For this reason, Keats echoes Wordsworth's "The Solitary Reaper" in the last stanza. Although their ways to beauty are different, their experiences are one.

Summary -2 (SparkNotes)
The speaker opens with a declaration of his own heartache. He feels numb, as though he had taken a drug only a moment ago. He is addressing a nightingale he hears singing somewhere in the forest and says that his "drowsy numbness" is not from envy of the nightingale's happiness, but rather from sharing it too completely; he is "too happy" that the nightingale sings the music of summer from amid some unseen plot of green trees and shadows.

In the second stanza, the speaker longs for the oblivion of alcohol, expressing his wish for wine, "a draught of vintage," that would taste like the country and like peasant dances, and let him "leave the world unseen" and disappear into the dim forest with the nightingale. In the third stanza, he explains his desire to fade away, saying he would like to forget the troubles the nightingale has never known: "the weariness, the fever, and the fret" of human life, with its consciousness that everything is mortal and nothing lasts. Youth "grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies," and "beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes."
In the fourth stanza, the speaker tells the nightingale to fly away, and he will follow, not through alcohol ("Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards"), but through poetry, which will give him "viewless wings." He says he is already with the nightingale and describes the forest glade, where even the moonlight is hidden by the trees, except the light that breaks through when the breezes blow the branches. In the fifth stanza, the speaker says that he cannot see the flowers in the glade, but can guess them "in embalmed darkness": white hawthorne, eglantine, violets, and the musk-rose, "the murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves." In the sixth stanza, the speaker listens in the dark to the nightingale, saying that he has often been "half in love" with the idea of dying and called Death soft names in many rhymes. Surrounded by the nightingale's song, the speaker thinks that the idea of death seems richer than ever, and he longs to "cease upon the midnight with no pain" while the nightingale pours its soul ecstatically forth. If he were to die, the nightingale would continue to sing, he says, but he would "have ears in vain" and be no longer able to hear.
In the seventh stanza, the speaker tells the nightingale that it is immortal, that it was not "born for death." He says that the voice he hears singing has always been heard, by ancient emperors and clowns, by homesick Ruth; he even says the song has often charmed open magic windows looking out over "the foam / Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn." In the eighth stanza, the word forlorn tolls like a bell to restore the speaker from his preoccupation with the nightingale and back into himself. As the nightingale flies farther away from him, he laments that his imagination has failed him and says that he can no longer recall whether the nightingale's music was "a vision, or a waking dream." Now that the music is gone, the speaker cannot recall whether he himself is awake or asleep.
Form
Like most of the other odes, "Ode to a Nightingale" is written in ten-line stanzas. However, unlike most of the other poems, it is metrically variable--though not so much as "Ode to Psyche." The first seven and last two lines of each stanza are written in iambic pentameter; the eighth line of each stanza is written in trimeter, with only three accented syllables instead of five. "Nightingale" also differs from the other odes in that its rhyme scheme is the same in every stanza (every other ode varies the order of rhyme in the final three or four lines except "To Psyche," which has the loosest structure of all the odes). Each stanza in "Nightingale" is rhymed ABABCDECDE, Keats's most basic scheme throughout the odes.
Themes
With "Ode to a Nightingale," Keats's speaker begins his fullest and deepest exploration of the themes of creative expression and the mortality of human life. In this ode, the transience of life and the tragedy of old age ("where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs, / Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies") is set against the eternal renewal of the nightingale's fluid music ("Thou wast not born for death, immortal bird!"). The speaker reprises the "drowsy numbness" he experienced in "Ode on Indolence," but where in "Indolence" that numbness was a sign of disconnection from experience, in "Nightingale" it is a sign of too full a connection: "being too happy in thine happiness," as the speaker tells the nightingale. Hearing the song of the nightingale, the speaker longs to flee the human world and join the bird. His first thought is to reach the bird's state through alcohol--in the second stanza, he longs for a "draught of vintage" to transport him out of himself. But after his meditation in the third stanza on the transience of life, he rejects the idea of being "charioted by Bacchus and his pards" (Bacchus was the Roman god of wine and was supposed to have been carried by a chariot pulled by leopards) and chooses instead to embrace, for the first time since he refused to follow the figures in "Indolence," "the viewless wings of Poesy."
The rapture of poetic inspiration matches the endless creative rapture of the nightingale's music and lets the speaker, in stanzas five through seven, imagine himself with the bird in the darkened forest. The ecstatic music even encourages the speaker to embrace the idea of dying, of painlessly succumbing to death while enraptured by the nightingale's music and never experiencing any further pain or disappointment. But when his meditation causes him to utter the word "forlorn," he comes back to himself, recognizing his fancy for what it is--an imagined escape from the inescapable ("Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well / As she is fam'd to do, deceiving elf"). As the nightingale flies away, the intensity of the speaker's experience has left him shaken, unable to remember whether he is awake or asleep.
In "Indolence," the speaker rejected all artistic effort. In "Psyche," he was willing to embrace the creative imagination, but only for its own internal pleasures. But in the nightingale's song, he finds a form of outward expression that translates the work of the imagination into the outside world, and this is the discovery that compels him to embrace Poesy's "viewless wings" at last. The "art" of the nightingale is endlessly changeable and renewable; it is music without record, existing only in a perpetual present. As befits his celebration of music, the speaker's language, sensually rich though it is, serves to suppress the sense of sight in favor of the other senses. He can imagine the light of the moon, "But here there is no light"; he knows he is surrounded by flowers, but he "cannot see what flowers" are at his feet. This suppression will find its match in "Ode on a Grecian Urn," which is in many ways a companion poem to "Ode to a Nightingale." In the later poem, the speaker will finally confront a created art-object not subject to any of the limitations of time; in "Nightingale," he has achieved creative expression and has placed his faith in it, but that expression--the nightingale's song--is spontaneous and without physical manifestation.

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18.2 Ode on a Grecian Urn - By John Keats (1795-1821)
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THOU still unravish’d bride of quietness,
Thou foster-child of silence and slow time,
Sylvan historian, who canst thus express
A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
What leaf-fring’d legend haunts about thy shape
Of deities or mortals, or of both,
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?


Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;
Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear’d,
Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone:
Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave
Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare;
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
Though winning near the goal—yet, do not grieve;
She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss,
For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair!
Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed
Your leaves, nor ever bid the Spring adieu;
And, happy melodist, unwearied, [un WEER e ED]
For ever piping songs for ever new;
More happy love! more happy, happy love!
For ever warm and still to be enjoy’d,
For ever panting, and for ever young;
All breathing human passion far above,
That leaves a heart high-sorrowful and cloy’d,
A burning forehead, and a parching tongue.
Who are these coming to the sacrifice?
To what green altar, O mysterious priest,
Lead’st thou that heifer lowing at the skies,
And all her silken flanks with garlands drest?
What little town by river or sea shore,
Or mountain-built with peaceful citadel,
Is emptied of this folk, this pious morn?
And, little town, thy streets for evermore
Will silent be; and not a soul to tell
Why thou art desolate, can e’er return.
O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede
Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
With forest branches and the trodden weed;
Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought
As doth eternity: Cold Pastoral!
When old age shall this generation waste,
Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou say’st,
“Beauty is truth, truth beauty,”—that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. Keats calls the urn an “unravish’d bride of quietness” because it has existed for centuries without undergoing any changes (it is “unravished”) as it sits quietly on a shelf or table. He also calls it a “foster-child of silence and time” because it is has been adopted by silence and time, parents who have conferred on the urn eternal stillness. In addition, Keats refers to the urn as a “sylvan historian” because it records a pastoral scene from long ago. (“Sylvan” refers to anything pertaining to woods or forests.) This scene tells a story (“legend”) in pictures framed with leaves (“leaf-fring’d”)–a story that the urn tells more charmingly with its images than Keats does with his pen. Keats speculates that the scene is set either in Tempe or Arcady. Tempe is a valley in Thessaly, Greece–between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa–that is favored by Apollo, the god of poetry and music. Arcady is Arcadia, a picturesque region in the Peloponnesus (a peninsula making up the southern part of Greece) where inhabitants live in carefree simplicity. Keats wonders whether the images he sees represent humans or gods. And, he asks, who are the reluctant (“loth”) maidens and what is the activity taking place?
Using paradox and oxymoron to open Stanza 2, Keats praises the silent music coming from the pipes and timbrels as far more pleasing than the audible music of real life, for the music from the urn is for the spirit. Keats then notes that the young man playing the pipe beneath trees must always remain an etched figure on the urn. He is fixed in time like the leaves on the tree. They will remain ever green and never die. Keats also says the bold young lover (who may be the piper or another person) can never embrace the maiden next to him even though he is so close to her. However, Keats says, the young man should not grieve, for his lady love will remain beautiful forever, and their love–though unfulfilled–will continue through all eternity.



Keats addresses the trees, calling them “happy, happy boughs” because they will never shed their leaves, and then addresses the young piper, calling him “happy melodist” because his songs will continue forever. In addition, the young man's love for the maiden will remain forever “warm and still to be enjoy’d / For ever panting, and for ever young. . . .” In contrast, Keats says, the love between a man and a woman in the real world is imperfect, bringing pain and sorrow and desire that cannot be fully quenched. The lover comes away with a “burning forehead, and a parching tongue.”



Keats inquires about the images of people approaching an altar to sacrifice a "lowing" (mooing) cow, one that has never borne a calf, on a green altar. Do these simple folk come from a little town on a river, a seashore, or a mountain topped by a peaceful fortress. Wherever the town is, it will be forever empty, for all of its inhabitants are here participating in the festivities depicted on the urn. Like the other figures on the urn, townspeople are frozen in time; they cannot escape the urn and return to their homes.
Keats begins by addressing the urn as an “attic shape.” Attic refers to Attica, a region of east-central ancient Greece in which Athens was the chief city. Shape, of course, refers to the urn. Thus, attic shape is an urn that was crafted in ancient Attica. The urn is a beautiful one, poet says, adorned with “brede” (braiding, embroidery) depicting marble men and women enacting a scene in the tangle of forest tree branches and weeds. As people look upon the scene, they ponder it–as they would ponder eternity–trying so hard to grasp its meaning that they exhaust themselves of thought. Keats calls the scene a “cold pastoral!”–in part because it is made of cold, unchanging marble and in part, perhaps, because it frustrates him with its unfathomable mysteries, as does eternity. (At this time in his life, Keats was suffering from tuberculosis, a disease that had killed his brother, and was no doubt much occupied with thoughts of eternity. He was also passionately in love with a young woman, Fanny Brawne, but was unable to act decisively on his feelings–even though she reciprocated his love–because he believed his lower social status and his dubious financial situation stood in the way. Consequently, he was like the cold marble of the urn–fixed and immovable.) Keats says that when death claims him and all those of his generation, the urn will remain. And it will say to the next generation what it has said to Keats: “Beauty is truth, truth beauty.” In other words, do not try to look beyond the beauty of the urn and its images, which are representations of the eternal, for no one can see into eternity. The beauty itself is enough for a human; that is the only truth that a human can fully grasp. The poem ends with an endorsement of these words, saying they make up the only axiom that any human being really needs to know.
. ...
Type of Work
"Ode on a Grecian Urn" is a romantic ode, a dignified but highly lyrical (emotional) poem in which the author speaks to a person or thing absent or present. In this famous ode, Keats addresses the urn and the images on it. The romantic ode was at the pinnacle of its popularity in the 19th Century. It was the result of an author’s deep meditation on the person or object. The romantic ode evolved from the ancient Greek ode, written in a serious tone to celebrate an event or to praise an individual. The Greek ode was intended to be sung by a chorus or by one person to the accompaniment of musical instruments. The odes of the Greek poet Pindar (circa 518-438 B.C.) frequently extolled athletes who participated in athletic games at Olympus, Delphi, the Isthmus of Corinth, and Nemea. Bacchylides, a contemporary of Pindar, also wrote odes praising athletes. The Roman poets Horace (65-8 B.C.) and Catullus (84-54 B.C.) wrote odes based on the Greek model, but their odes were not intended to be sung. In the 19th Century, English romantic poets wrote odes that retained the serious tone of the Greek ode. However, like the Roman poets, they did not write odes to be sung. Unlike the Roman poets, though, the authors of 19th Century romantic odes generally were more emotional in their writing. The author of a typical romantic ode focused on a scene, pondered its meaning, and presented a highly personal reaction to it that included a special insight at the end of the poem (like the closing lines of “Ode on a Grecian Urn”).
Writing and Publication Dates
"Ode on a Grecian Urn" was written in the spring of 1819 and published later that year in Annals of the Fine Arts, which focused on architecture, sculpture, and painting but sometimes published poems and essays with themes related to the arts.
Structure and Meter
"Ode on a Grecian Urn" consists of five stanzas that present a scene, describe and comment on what it shows, and offer a general truth that the scene teaches a person analyzing the scene. Each stanza has ten lines written in iambic pentameter, a pattern of rhythm (meter) that assigns ten syllables to each line. The first syllable is unaccented, the second accented, the third unaccented, the fourth accented, and so on. Note, for example, the accent pattern of the first two lines of the poem. The unaccented syllables are in lower-cased blue letters, and the accented syllables are in upper-cased red letters.
thou STILL un RAV ished BRIDE of QUI et NESS,
thou FOS ter - CHILD of SI lence AND slow TIME
Notice that each line has ten syllables, five unaccented ones in blue and five accented ones in red. Thus, these lines--like the other lines in the poem--are in iambic pentameter. Iambic refers to a pair of syllables, one unaccented and the other accented. Such a pair is called an iamb. "Thou STILL" is an iamb; so are "et NESS" and "slow TIME." However, "BRIDE of" and "FOS ter" are not iambs because they consist of an accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable. Pentameter--the first syllable of which is derived from the Greek word for five--refers to lines that have five iambs (which, as demonstrated, each have two syllables). "Ode on a Grecian Urn," then, is in iambic pentameter because every line has five iambs, each iamb consisting of an unaccented syllable followed by an accented one. The purpose of this stress pattern is to give the poem rhythm that pleases the ear.
Situation and Setting
In England, Keats examines a marble urn crafted in ancient Greece. (Whether such an urn was real or imagined is uncertain. However, many artifacts from ancient Greece, ones which could have inspired Keats, were on display in the British Museum at the time that Keats wrote the poem.) Pictured on the urn, a type of vase, are pastoral scenes in Greece. In one scene, males are chasing females in some sort of revelry or celebration. There are musicians playing pipes (wind instruments such as flutes) and timbrels (ancient tambourines). Keats wonders whether the images represent both gods and humans. He also wonders what has occasioned their merrymaking. A second scene depicts people leading a heifer to a sacrificial altar. Keats writes his ode about what he sees, addressing or commenting on the urn and its images as if they were real beings with whom he can speak.
Text, Summary, and Annotations
End-Rhyming Words Are Highlighted

Figures of Speech
.
The main figures of speech in the poem are apostrophe and metaphor in the form of personification. An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which an author speaks to a person or thing absent or present. A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things without using the word like, as, or than. Personification is a type of metaphor that compares an object with a human being. In effect, it treats an object as a person--hence, the term personification. Apostrophe and metaphor/personification occur simultaneously in the opening lines of the poem when Keats addresses the urn as "Thou," "bride," "foster-child," and "historian" (apostrophe). In speaking to the urn this way, he implies that it is a human (metaphor/personification). Keats also addresses the trees as persons in Stanza 3 and continues to address the urn as a person in Stanza 5. Other notable figures of speech in the poem include the following:
Assonance
bride of quietness, / Thou foster-child of silence and slow time
Alliteration
Thou foster-child of silence and slow time, / Sylvan historian, who canst thus express
Anaphora
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy?
Paradox
What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape? (The images move even though they are fixed in marble)
Oxymoron
those [melodies] unheard
peaceful citadel (citadel: fortress occupied by soldiers)

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19. Ode to the West Wind - Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
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1 O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being,
2 Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
3 Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,

4 Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,
5 Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou,
6 Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed

7 The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low,
8 Each like a corpse within its grave, until
9 Thine azure sister of the Spring shall blow

10 Her clarion o'er the dreaming earth, and fill
11 (Driving sweet buds like flocks to feed in air)
12 With living hues and odours plain and hill:

13 Wild Spirit, which art moving everywhere;
14 Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh hear!


15 Thou on whose stream, mid the steep sky's commotion,
16 Loose clouds like earth's decaying leaves are shed,
17 Shook from the tangled boughs of Heaven and Ocean,

18 Angels of rain and lightning: there are spread
19 On the blue surface of thine aëry surge,
20 Like the bright hair uplifted from the head

21 Of some fierce Maenad, even from the dim verge
22 Of the horizon to the zenith's height,
23 The locks of the approaching storm. Thou dirge

24 Of the dying year, to which this closing night
25 Will be the dome of a vast sepulchre,
26 Vaulted with all thy congregated might

27 Of vapours, from whose solid atmosphere
28 Black rain, and fire, and hail will burst: oh hear!


29 Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams
30 The blue Mediterranean, where he lay,
31 Lull'd by the coil of his crystàlline streams,

32 Beside a pumice isle in Baiae's bay,
33 And saw in sleep old palaces and towers
34 Quivering within the wave's intenser day,

35 All overgrown with azure moss and flowers
36 So sweet, the sense faints picturing them! Thou
37 For whose path the Atlantic's level powers

38 Cleave themselves into chasms, while far below
39 The sea-blooms and the oozy woods which wear
40 The sapless foliage of the ocean, know

41 Thy voice, and suddenly grow gray with fear,
42 And tremble and despoil themselves: oh hear!


43 If I were a dead leaf thou mightest bear;
44 If I were a swift cloud to fly with thee;
45 A wave to pant beneath thy power, and share

46 The impulse of thy strength, only less free
47 Than thou, O uncontrollable! If even
48 I were as in my boyhood, and could be

49 The comrade of thy wanderings over Heaven,
50 As then, when to outstrip thy skiey speed
51 Scarce seem'd a vision; I would ne'er have striven

52 As thus with thee in prayer in my sore need.
53 Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!
54 I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed!

55 A heavy weight of hours has chain'd and bow'd
56 One too like thee: tameless, and swift, and proud.


57 Make me thy lyre, even as the forest is:
58 What if my leaves are falling like its own!
59 The tumult of thy mighty harmonies

60 Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone,
61 Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,
62 My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!

63 Drive my dead thoughts over the universe
64 Like wither'd leaves to quicken a new birth!
65 And, by the incantation of this verse,

66 Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearth
67 Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
68 Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth

69 The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,
70 If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?


Notes
1] According to Shelley's note, "this poem was conceived and chiefly written in a wood that skirts the Arno, near Florence, and on a day when that tempestuous wind, whose temperature is at once mild and animating, was collecting the vapours which pour down the autumnal rains. They began, as I foresaw, at sunset with a violent tempest of hail and rain, attended by that magnificent thunder and lightning peculiar to the Cisalpine regions" (188). Florence was the home of Dante Alighieri, creator of terza rima, the form of his Divine Comedy. Zephyrus was the west wind, son of Astrœus and Aurora.
4] The four colours of man. hectic red: the complexion of those suffering from consumption, tuberculosis.
9] Thine azure sister of the spring: Latin ver, but not a formal mythological figure.
10] clarion: piercing, war-like trumpet.
14] Destroyer and preserver: Perhaps like the Hindu gods Siva the destroyer and Vishnu the preserver, known to Shelley from Edward Moor's Hindu Pantheon, introduction by Burton Feldman (London: J. Johnson by T. Bensley, 1810; reprinted New York: Garland, 1984) and the works of Sir William Jones (1746-1794).
21] Maenad: a participant in the rites of Bacchus or Dionysus, Greek god of wine and fertility; a Bacchante.
23] locks: cirrus clouds take their name from their likeness to curls of hair.
31] coil: encircling cables, or perhaps confused murmuring or noise.
32-36] Having taken a boat trip from Naples west to the Bay of Baiae on December 8, 1818, Shelley wrote to T. L. Peacock about sailing over a sea "so translucent that you could see the hollow caverns clothed with glaucous sea-moss, and the leaves and branches of those delicate weeds that pave the unequal bottom of the water," and about "passing the Bay of Baiae, and observing the ruins of its antique grandeur standing like rocks in the transparent sea under our boat" (Letters, II, 61). Baiae is the site of ruined underwater Roman villas. pumice: lava cooled into a porous, foam-like stone.
39-42] "The phenomenon alluded to at the conclusion of the third stanza is well known to naturalists. The vegetation at the bottom of the sea, of rivers, and of lakes, sympathises with that of the land in the change of seasons, and is consequently influenced by the winds which announce it" (188; Shelley's note).
57] lyre: Aeolian or wind harp.
69] trumpet of a prophecy: Shelley alludes to the opening of the Book of Revelation of St. John the Divine in the Bible, 1.3-18:
3 Blessed is hee that readeth, and they that heare the words of this prophesie, and keepe those things which are written therein: for the time is at hand.
4 Iohn to the seuen Churches in Asia, Grace be vnto you, & peace, from him which is, and which was, and which is to come, and from the seuen spirits which are before his throne:
5 And from Iesus Christ, who is the faithful witnesse, and the first begotten of the dead, and the Prince of the kings of the earth: vnto him that loued vs, and washed vs from our sinnes in his owne blood,
6 And hath made vs Kings and Priests vnto God and his Father: to him be glory and dominion for euer and euer, Amen.
7 Behold he commeth with clouds, and euery eye shal see him, and they also which pearced him: and all kinreds of the earth shall waile because of him: euen so. Amen.
8 I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty.
9 I Iohn, who also am your brother, and companion in tribulation, and in the kingdome and patience of Iesus Christ, was in the Isle that is called Patmos, for the word of God, and for the testimonie of Iesus Christ.
10 I was in the spirit on the Lords day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet,
11 Saying, I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last: and what thou seest, write in a booke, and send it vnto the seuen Churches which are in Asia, vnto Ephesus, and vnto Smyrna, and vnto Pergamos, and vnto Thyatira, and vnto Sardis, and Philadelphia, and vnto Laodicea.
12 And I turned to see the voice that spake with mee. And being turned, I saw seuen golden Candlesticks,
13 And in the midst of the seuen candlestickes, one like vnto the Sonne of man, clothed with a garment downe to the foot, and girt about the paps with a golden girdle.
14 His head, and his haires were white like wooll as white as snow, and his eyes were as a flame of fire,
15 And his feet like vnto fine brasse, as if they burned in a furnace: and his voice as the sound of many waters.
16 And hee had in his right hand seuen starres: and out of his mouth went a sharpe two edged sword: and his countenance was as the Sunne shineth in his strength.
17 And when I sawe him, I fell at his feete as dead: and hee laid his right hand vpon me, saying vnto mee, Feare not, I am the first, and the last.
18 I am hee that liueth, and was dead: and behold, I am aliue for euermore, Amen, and haue the keyes of hell and of death.

Commentary
In "Ode to the West Wind," Shelley invokes Zephirus, the west wind, to free his "dead thoughts" and words, "as from an unextinguished hearth / Ashes and sparks" (63, 66-67), in order to prophesy a renaissance among humanity, "to quicken a new birth" (64). This ode, one of a few personal lyrics published with his great verse drama, "Prometheus Unbound," identifies Shelley with his heroic, tormented Titan. By stealing fire from heaven, Prometheus enabled humanity to found civilization. In punishment, according to Hesiod's account, Zeus chained Prometheus on a mountain and gave him unending torment, as an eagle fed from his constantly restored liver. Shelley completed both his dramatic poem and "Ode to the West Wind" in autumn 1819 in Florence, home of the great Italian medieval poet, Dante. The autumn wind Shelley celebrates in this ode came on him, standing in the Arno forest near Florence, just as he was finishing "Prometheus Unbound." Dante's Divine Comedy had told an epic story of his ascent from Hell into Heaven to find his lost love Beatrice. Shelley's ode invokes a like ascent from death to life for his own spark-like, potentially firy thoughts and words. Like Prometheus, Shelley hopes that his fire, a free-thinking, reformist philosophy, will enlighten humanity and liberate it from intellectual and moral imprisonment. He writes about his hopes for the future.
A revolutionary, Shelley believed that poets exercise the same creative mental powers that make civilization itself. The close of his "Defence of Poetry" underlies the thought of "Ode to the West Wind":
Poets are the hierophants of an unapprehended inspiration, the mirrors of the gigantic shadows which futurity casts upon the present, the words which express what they understand not, the trumpets which sing to battle and feel not what they inspire: the influence which is moved not, but moves. Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the World.
The trumpeting poetic imagination, inspired by sources -- spirits -- unknown to the poet himself, actually reverses time. Poets prophesy, not by consciously extrapolating from past to present, and from present to future, with instrumental reason, but by capitulating to the mind's intuition, by freeing the imagination. Poets influence what the future will bring by unknowingly reflecting or "mirroring" future's "shadows" on the present. For Shelley, a living entity or spirit, not a mechanism, drives the world. By surrendering to the creative powers of the mind, the poet unites his spirit with the world's spirit across time. The west wind, Zephirus, represents that animate universe in Shelley's ode.
Shelley implores the West Wind to make him its "lyre" (57), that is, its wind-harp. "The Defence of Poetry" begins with this same metaphor: Shelley writes that "Man is an instrument over which a series of external and internal impressions are driven, like the alternations of an ever-changing wind over an Æolian lyre; which move it, by their motion, to ever-changing melody" (§7). This is not just a pretty figure of speech from nature. We now recognize that poetic inspiration itself arises from a "wild," "uncontrollable," and "tameless" source like the wind, buffeting the mind's unconscious. Long before cognitive psychology taught us this fact, Shelley clearly saw that no one could watch her or his own language process as it worked. Like all procedural memories, it is recalled only in the doing. We are unconscious of its workings, what contributes both content and form, semantics and syntax, to our utterances. He writes that "the mind in creation is as a fading coal which some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind, awakens to transitory brightness; this power arises from within, like the colour of a flower which fades and changes as it is developed, and the conscious portions of our natures are unprophetic either of its approach or its departure" (§285). This epic metaphor goes beyond the action of the wind on the lyre, the world on the mind. The wind's tumultuous "mighty harmonies" (59) imprint their power and patterns on the "leaves" they drive, both ones that fall from trees, and ones we call `pages,' the leaves on which poems are written. Inspiration gives the poet a melody, a sequence of simple notes, resembling the wind's "stream" (15), but his creative mind imposes a new harmony of this melody, by adding chords and by repeating and varying the main motifs. The human imagination actively works with this "wind" to impose "harmony" on its melody. The lyre "accomodate[s] its chords to the motions of that which strikes them, in a determined proportion of sound; even as the musician can accommodate his voice to the sound of the lyre" (§8). In this way, the poet's mind and the inspiration it receives co-create the poem.
In "Ode on the West Wind," the `melody' delivered to Shelley is unconsciously expressed in the poem's epic metaphor, and the chords that his mind generates in response are, first, the repetitions and variations of that melody -- for example, the variation of the "leaves" metaphor -- and secondly, the formal order: the sonnet sequence imposed on terza rima, as if the tradition of Western sonneteering were imposed on Dante's transcendental vision. That Shelley echoes the metaphor-melody's points of comparison throughout "The Defence of Poetry" shows how deeply ingrained it was in his mind. To Shelley, metaphors like this, comparing a human being and the universe, characterize the prophetic powers of all poets. Their conscious, rational mind, in routine deliberation, observes and describes, taking care not to impose on the things under scrutiny anything from the observer, but comparisons, fusing different things, depart from observation. They impose on experience something that the mind supplies or that is in turn supplied to it by inspiration. In "The Defence of Poetry," Shelley explains that poets' "language is vitally metaphorical; that is it marks the before unapprehended relations of things" (§22). Shelley builds "Ode to the West Wind" on "unapprehended relations" between the poetic mind and the west wind. The experience in the Arno forest, presumably (why else would he have footnoted the incident?), awoke his mind to these relations.
If we believe that the unselfconscious mind is susceptible to the same chaotic forces as the weather, and if we trust those forces as fundamentally good, then Shelley's ode will ring true. Trusting instead in man-made categories like honour, fame, and friendship, Thomas Gray would have been bewildered by Shelley's faith. The country graveyard has spirits, to be sure, but they are ghosts of dead friends. No natural power inspires elegies or epitaphs. These writings reflect the traditional order by which melancholy, sentimental minds put order to nature. Gray quotes from many poets, as if asserting humanity's strength in numbers. Like Wordsworth's solitary reaper, Shelley stands alone, singing in a strange voice that inspires but perplexes traditional listeners. He cries out to a wind-storm, "Be thou, Spirit fierce, / My spirit!" Eighteenth-century poets like Pope would have laughed this audaciousness to scorn, but then they would never have had the courage to go out into the storm and, like Shakespeare's Lear in the mad scene, shout down the elements.
Even should we not empathize with Shelley, his ode has a good claim to being one of the very greatest works of art in the Romantic period. Its heroic grandeur attains a crescendo in the fifth and last part with a hope that English speakers everywhere for nearly two centuries have committed to memory and still utter, often unaware of its source: "If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" Annotating editors have looked in vain for signs that Shelley resuscitated old phrases and other men's flowers in this ode. What he writes is his own. It emerges, not in Gray's often quoted end-stopped phrases, lines, and couplets, but in passionate, flowing sentences. The first part, all 14 lines, invokes the West Wind's attention in one magnificent sentence. Five lines in the first part, two of which come at the end of a stanza, enjamb with the following lines. Few poets have fused such diverging poetic forms as terza rima, built on triplets with interwoven rhymes, and the sonnet, contrived with couplets, quatrains, sestets, and octaves. Yet even this compelling utterance, unifying so much complexity in an onward rush, can be summarized and analyzed.
The opening three stanzas invoke the West Wind (in order) as a driving force over land, in the sky, and under the ocean, and beg it to "hear" the poet (14, 28, 42). In the first stanza, the wind as "Destroyer and preserver" (14) drives "dead leaves" and "winged seeds" to the former's burial and the latter's spring rebirth. The second and third stanzas extend the leaf image. The sky's clouds in the second stanza are like "earth's decaying leaves" (17) and "Angels of rain and lightning" (18), a phrase that fuses the guardian and the killer. In the third stanza, the wind penetrates to the Atlantic's depths and causes the sea flowers and "oozy woods" to "despoil themselves" (40, 42), that is, to shed the "sapless foliage of the ocean," sea-leaves. The forests implicit in the opening stanza, in this way, become "the tangled boughs of Heaven and Ocean" in the second, and "oozy woods" in the third. The last two stanzas shift from nature's forests to Shelley's. In the fourth stanza, he identifies himself with the leaves of the first three stanzas: "dead leaf," "swift cloud," and "wave." If the wind can lift these things into flight, why can it not also lift Shelley "as a wave, a leaf, a cloud" (43-45, 53)? The fifth stanza completes the metaphor by identifying Shelley's "falling" and "withered" leaves (58, 64) as his "dead thoughts" and "words" (63, 67). At last Shelley -- in longing to be the West Wind's lyre -- becomes one with "the forest" (57). The last two stanzas also bring Shelley's commands to the invoked West Wind to a climax. The fourth, transitional stanza converts the threefold command "hear" to "lift" (53), and the last multiplies the commands sixfold: "Make me thy lyre" (57), "Be thou, Spirit fierce, / My Spirit" and "Be thou me" (61-62), "Drive my dead thoughts" (63), "Scatter ... / Ashes and sparks" (66), and "Be ... / The trumpet of a prophecy" (68).
Reading fine poems and listening attentively to classical music both give pleasure, but it comes for several reasons. We carry away a piece of music's theme or "melody," rehearse it silently, and recognize the piece from that brief tune. One or more lines from a poem give a like pleasure. Some are first lines: young lovers recall Elizabeth Barrett's "How do I love thee. Let me count the ways"; and older married couples her husband Robert Browning's "Grow old with me. / The best is yet to be" (from "Rabbi Ben Ezra"). Some are last lines: John Milton's "They also serve who only stand and wait," Dorothy Parker's "You might as well live," and Shelley's "If Winter comes ..." As often, lines from the middle of poems persist, detached: where do
The heights by great men reached and kept
Were not attained by sudden flight,
But they, while their companions slept,
Were toiling upward in the night.
"Home is the sailor, home from sea," and "Under the bludgeonings of chance / My head is bloody, but unbowed" come from? (Longfellow's "The Ladder of St. Augustine," Stevenson's "Requium," and Henley's "Invictus.") Yet a pleasure just as keen comes from appreciating how a piece of music or a poem harmonizes its melodies. The longer we read a poem, the more perfected become its variations of those lines that live in our memory. "If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?", in this way, perfects what came before.
The West Wind is the breath of personified Autumn. When Shelley invokes this breath, "dirge" (21), and "voice" (41), he has in mind a fellow traveller, a "comrade" (49) like himself, no less a human being for being a season of the year, no less an individual than the "close bosom-friend" in Keats' "To Autumn." Two other figures recur to Shelley in the Arno forest that day. The stormy cirrus clouds driven by the wind remind him of the "bright hair" and "locks" of "some fierce Mænad" (20-23). He imagines the wind waking a male and dreaming "blue Mediterranean" (29-30). Like Shelley the boy, these minor fellow travellers help humanize Autumn and his speaking power. In the first section, Shelley characterizes him as "an enchanter" (3) and a charioteer (6) to make that personification vivid. Then, by repeatedly addressing the West Wind in the second person as "thou" and "thee," Shelley works towards achieving his purpose, his "sore need" (52). That would identify himself, not just with the leaves of the forest, the wind's victims, but as "One too like thee" (56), like Autumn, music maker, composer of "mighty harmonies." Shelley imagines himself first as Autumn's lyre but, made bolder by the moment, claims the composer's own voice with "Be thou me, impetuous one!" (62). He associates himself with Autumn, the "enchanter," in the phrase, "by the incantation of this verse" (65). "Ode to the West Wind," in Shelley's mind, possesses the wind's own driving power at its close.
Shelley's overreaching is not quite done. The Autumn wind does not create, but only destroys and preserves. It drives ghosts and "Pestilence-stricken multitudes" (5), causes "Angels of rain and lightning" (18) to fall from heaven, releases "Black rain, and fire, and hail" (28), and brings fear to the oceans. It is not enough to be "a wave, a leaf, a cloud," at the mercy of Autumn's means in the "dying year" (24). The last stanza disregards Autumn and its successor season, Winter, for the last of the poem's characters, Autumn's "azure sister of the spring" (9). Shelley anticipates that spring will "blow / Her clarion" (8-10) for a good reason. At the most poignant moment of recognition of the poem, in the last two lines we all remember and do not know why, Spring's life-giving clarion becomes "The trumpet of a prophecy" Shelley determines to blow. Though "dead" and "withered," though reduced to scattered "Ashes," he will return, his "lips" blowing the trumpet, like the voice of the Spring. In shifting from clarion to trumpet, he brings the poem's harmonies to a climax. "Ode to the West Wind" ends with faith in a poet's resurrection, not with a weather forecast.

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20. The Vision of Judgment - By "Quevedo Redivivus" (George Gordon, Lord Byron)
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XXXVI
The Archangel bowed, not like a modern beau,
But with a graceful oriental bend,
Pressing one radiant arm just where below
The heart in good men is supposed to tend;
He turned as to an equal, not too low, [285]
But kindly; Satan met his ancient friend
With more hauteur, as might an old Castilian
Poor Noble meet a mushroom rich civilian.
XXXVII
He merely bent his diabolic brow
An instant; and then raising it, he stood [290]
In act to assert his right or wrong, and show
Cause why King George by no means could or should
Make out a case to be exempt from woe
Eternal, more than other kings, endued
With better sense and hearts, whom History mentions, [295]
Who long have "paved Hell with their good intentions."
XXXVIII
Michael began: "What wouldst thou with this man,
Now dead, and brought before the Lord? What ill
Hath he wrought since his mortal race began,
That thou canst claim him? Speak! and do thy will, [300]
If it be just: if in this earthly span
He hath been greatly failing to fulfil
His duties as a king and mortal, say,
And he is thine; if not — let him have way."
XXXIX
"Michael!" replied the Prince of Air, "even here [305]
Before the gate of Him thou servest, must
I claim my subject: and will make appear
That as he was my worshipper in dust,
So shall he be in spirit, although dear
To thee and thine, because nor wine nor lust [310]
Were of his weaknesses; yet on the throne
He reigned o'er millions to serve me alone.
XL
"Look to our earth, or rather mine; it was,
Once, more thy master's: but I triumph not
In this poor planet's conquest; nor, alas! [315]
Need he thou servest envy me my lot:
With all the myriads of bright worlds which pass
In worship round him, he may have forgot
Yon weak creation of such paltry things:
I think few worth damnation save their kings, [320]
XLI
"And these but as a kind of quit-rent, to
Assert my right as Lord: and even had
I such an inclination, 'twere (as you
Well know) superfluous; they are grown so bad,
That Hell has nothing better left to do [325]
Than leave them to themselves: so much more mad
And evil by their own internal curse,
Heaven cannot make them better, nor I worse.
XLII
"Look to the earth, I said, and say again:
When this old, blind, mad, helpless, weak, poor worm 20 [330]
Began in youth's first bloom and flush to reign,
The world and he both wore a different form,
And much of earth and all the watery plain
Of Ocean called him king: through many a storm
His isles had floated on the abyss of Time; [335]
For the rough virtues chose them for their clime.
XLIII
"He came to his sceptre young; he leaves it old:
Look to the state in which he found his realm,

And left it; and his annals too behold,
How to a minion first he gave the helm; [340]
How grew upon his heart a thirst for gold,
The beggar's vice, which can but overwhelm
The meanest hearts; and for the rest, but glance
Thine eye along America and France.
XLIV
"'Tis true, he was a tool from first to last [345]
(I have the workmen safe); but as a tool
So let him be consumed. From out the past
Of ages, since mankind have known the rule
Of monarchs — from the bloody rolls amassed
Of Sin and Slaughter — from the C‘sars' school, [350]
Take the worst pupil; and produce a reign
More drenched with gore, more cumbered with the slain.
XLV
"He ever warred with freedom and the free:
Nations as men, home subjects, foreign foes,
So that they uttered the word 'Liberty!' [355]
Found George the Third their first opponent. Whose
History was ever stained as his will be
With national and individual woes?
I grant his household abstinence; I grant
His neutral virtues, which most monarchs want; [360]
XLVI
"I know he was a constant consort; own
He was a decent sire, and middling lord.
All this is much, and most upon a throne;
As temperance, if at Apicius' board,
Is more than at an anchorite's supper shown. [365]
I grant him all the kindest can accord;
And this was well for him, but not for those
Millions who found him what Oppression chose.
XLVII
"The New World shook him off; the Old yet groans
Beneath what he and his prepared, if not [370]
Completed: he leaves heirs on many thrones
To all his vices, without what begot
Compassion for him — his tame virtues; drones
Who sleep, or despots who have now forgot
A lesson which shall be re-taught them, wake [375]
Upon the thrones of earth; but let them quake!
XLVIII
"Five millions of the primitive, who hold
The faith which makes ye great on earth, implored
A part of that vast all they held of old,—
Freedom to worship — not alone your Lord, [380]
Michael, but you, and you, Saint Peter! Cold
Must be your souls, if you have not abhorred
The foe to Catholic participation 21
In all the license of a Christian nation.
XLIX
"True! he allowed them to pray God; but as [385]
A consequence of prayer, refused the law
Which would have placed them upon the same base
With those who did not hold the Saints in awe."
But here Saint Peter started from his place
And cried, "You may the prisoner withdraw: [390]
Ere Heaven shall ope her portals to this Guelph, 22
While I am guard, may I be damned myself!
L
"Sooner will I with Cerberus exchange
My office (and his is no sinecure)
Than see this royal Bedlam-bigot range [395]
The azure fields of Heaven, of that be sure!"
"Saint!" replied Satan, "you do well to avenge
The wrongs he made your satellites endure;
And if to this exchange you should be given,
I'll try to coax our Cerberus up to Heaven!" [400]


Notes:
20. A near-quotation of the opening of Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Sonnet: England in 1819," an attack on George III.
21. George III opposed extending civil rights to British Catholics.
22. George III was of the House of Hanover, which claimed descent from the Italian royal line of Guelph.
1. From Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, 4.1.
2. Quevedo was a seventeenth-century Spanish poet noted for his sharp satires, especially Los Sueños

Commentary(of whole poem – 106 stanzas)
Byron's Vision of Judgment was a response to Robert Southey's Vision of Judgement published in 1820. King George III died on 29 January 1820, and Southey, the Poet Laureate, commemorated his elevation into heaven. In the poem Southey also took a swipe at Byron and his "Satanic school." Byron's poem imagines the same scene from a very different political perspective.

"A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a Daniel!
I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word." 1
PREFACE
It hath been wisely said, that "One fool makes many"; and it hath been poetically observed—
"[That] fools rush in where angels fear to tread."
If Mr. Southey had not rushed in where he had no business, and where he never was before, and never will be again, the following poem would not have been written. It is not impossible that it may be as good as his own, seeing that it cannot, by any species of stupidity, natural or acquired, be worse. The gross flattery, the dull impudence, the renegado intolerance, and impious cant, of the poem by the author of "Wat Tyler," are something so stupendous as to form the sublime of himself — containing the quintessence of his own attributes.
So much for his poem — a word on his preface. In this preface it has pleased the magnanimous Laureate to draw the picture of a supposed "Satanic School," the which he doth recommend to the notice of the legislature; thereby adding to his other laurels the ambition of those of an informer. If there exists anywhere, except in his imagination, such a School, is he not sufficiently armed against it by his own intense vanity? The truth is that there are certain writers whom Mr. S. imagines, like Scrub, to have "talked of him; for they laughed consumedly."
I think I know enough of most of the writers to whom he is supposed to allude, to assert, that they, in their individual capacities, have done more good, in the charities of life, to their fellow-creatures, in any one year, than Mr. Southey has done harm to himself by his absurdities in his whole life; and this is saying a great deal. But I have a few questions to ask.
1stly, Is Mr. Southey the author of Wat Tyler?
2ndly, Was he not refused a remedy at law by the highest judge of his beloved England, because it was a blasphemous and seditious publication?
3rdly, Was he not entitled by William Smith, in full parliament, "a rancorous renegado?"
4thly, Is he not poet laureate, with his own lines on Martin the regicide staring him in the face?
And, 5thly, Putting the four preceding items together, with what conscience dare he call the attention of the laws to the publications of others, be they what they may?
I say nothing of the cowardice of such a proceeding; its meanness speaks for itself; but I wish to touch upon the motive, which is neither more nor less than that Mr. S. has been laughed at a little in some recent publications, as he was of yore in the Anti-jacobin, by his present patrons. Hence all this "skimble scamble stuff" about "Satanic," and so forth. However, it is worthy of him — "qualis ab incepto."
If there is anything obnoxious to the political opinions of a portion of the public in the following poem, they may thank Mr. Southey. He might have written hexameters, as he has written everything else, for aught that the writer cared — had they been upon another subject. But to attempt to canonise a monarch, who, whatever were his household virtues, was neither a successful nor a patriot king, — inasmuch as several years of his reign passed in war with America and Ireland, to say nothing of the aggression upon France — like all other exaggeration, necessarily begets opposition. In whatever manner he may be spoken of in this new Vision, his public career will not be more favourably transmitted by history. Of his private virtues (although a little expensive to the nation) there can be no doubt.
With regard to the supernatural personages treated of, I can only say that I know as much about them, and (as an honest man) have a better right to talk of them than Robert Southey. I have also treated them more tolerantly. The way in which that poor insane creature, the Laureate, deals about his judgments in the next world, is like his own judgment in this. If it was not completely ludicrous, it would be something worse. I don't think that there is much more to say at present.
QUEVEDO REDIVIVUS. 2
P.S. — It is possible that some readers may object, in these objectionable times, to the freedom with which saints, angels, and spiritual persons discourse in this Vision. But, for precedents upon such points, I must refer him to Fielding's Journey from this World to the next, and the the Visions of myself, the said Quevedo, in Spanish or translated. The reader is also requested to observe, that no doctrinal tenets are insisted upon or discussed; that the person of the Deity is carefully withheld from sight, which is more than can be said for the Laureate, who hath thought proper to make him talk, not "like a school-divine," but like the unscholarlike Mr. Southey. The whole action passes on the outside of heaven; and Chaucer's Wife of Bath, Pulci's Morgante Maggiore, Swift's Tale of a Tub, and the other works above referred to, are cases in point of the freedom with which saints, etc., may be permitted to converse in works not intended to be serious.
Q.R.
Mr. Southey being, as he says, a good Christian and vindictive, threatens, I understand, a reply to this our answer. It is to be hoped that his visionary faculties will in the meantime have acquired a little more judgment, properly so called: otherwise he will get himself into new dilemmas. These apostate jacobins furnish rich rejoinders. Let him take a specimen. Mr. Southey laudeth grievously "one Mr. Landor," who cultivates much private renown in the shape of Latin verses; and not long ago, the poet laureate dedicated to him, it appeareth, one of his fugitive lyrics, upon the strength of a poem called "Gebir." Who could suppose, that in this same Gebir the aforesaid Savage Landor (for such is his grim cognomen) putteth into the infernal regions no less a person than the hero of his friend Mr. Southey's heaven, — yea, even George the Third! See also how personal Savage becometh, when he hath a mind. The following is his portrait of our late gracious sovereign:—
(Prince Gebir having descended into the infernal regions, the shades of his royal ancestors are, at his request, called up to his view; and he exclaims to his ghostly guide)—
"Aroar, what wretch that nearest us? what wretch
Is that with eyebrows white and slanting brow?
Listen! him yonder who, bound down supine,
Shrinks yelling from that sword there, engine-hung;
He too amongst my ancestors! [. . .] [. . .]
[. . .] O king!
Iberia bore him, but the breed accurst
Inclement winds blew blighting from north-east.'
'He was a warrior then, nor fear'd the gods?'
'Gebir, he feared the Demons, not the gods,
Though them indeed his daily face adored;
And was no warrior, yet the thousand lives
Squandered, as stones to exercise a sling,
And the tame cruelty and cold caprice—
Oh madness of mankind! addressed, adored!'
Gebir.
I omit noticing some edifying Ithyphallics of Savagius, wishing to keep the proper veil over them, if his grave but somewhat indiscreet worshipper will suffer it; but certainly these teachers of "great moral lessons" are apt to be found in strange company.

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21. Northanger Abbey - Jane Austen
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Northanger Abbey was the first of Jane Austen's novels to be completed for publication, though she had previously made a start on Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice. According to Cassandra Austen's Memorandum, Susan (as it was first called) was written about the years 1798-1799.
Northanger Abbey was written by Austen in 1798, revised for the press in 1803, and sold in the same year for £10 to a London bookseller, Crosby & Co., who after allowing it to remain for many years on his shelves, was content to sell it back to the novelist's brother, Henry Austen, for the exact sum that he had paid for it at the beginning, not knowing that the writer was already the author of four popular novels. The novel was further revised before being brought out posthumously in late December 1817 (1818 given on the title-page), as the first two volumes of a four-volume set with Persuasion.

Plot introduction
Northanger Abbey follows Catherine Morland and family friends Mr. and Mrs. Allen as they visit Bath, England. Seventeen year-old Catherine spends her time visiting newly-made friends, such as Isabella Thorpe, and going to balls. Catherine finds herself pursued by Isabella's brother John Thorpe (Catherine's brother James's friend from university), and by Henry Tilney. She also becomes friends with Eleanor Tilney, Henry's younger sister. Henry captivates her with his view on novels and his knowledge of history and the world. General Tilney (Henry and Eleanor's father) invites Catherine to visit their estate, Northanger Abbey, which, because she has been reading Ann Radcliffe's gothic novel The Mysteries of Udolpho, Catherine expects to be dark, ancient and full of fantastical mystery.

Plot summary
The story's heroine, seventeen year old Catherine Morland, is invited by her neighbours in Fullerton, the Allens, to accompany them to visit Bath for a number of weeks. While, initially, the excitement of experiencing such a place was dampened by her lack of other acquaintances, she is soon introduced to an intriguing young gentleman named Henry Tilney, with whom she dances and converses. She does not see him again for a few days however, though her attention was quickly taken upon meeting a young lady named Isabella Thorpe. Isabella tries to make a match between Catherine and her brother John. Catherine is not too interested in this, and tries to maintain her friendships with both the Thorpes and the Tilneys. John Thorpe continually tries to sabotage her relationship with the Tilneys, which leads to many misunderstandings.
Meanwhile, Isabella becomes engaged to Catherine's brother James, though Isabella is dissatisfied that James is not as rich as she had previously thought. At a ball, when James is away, she meets Henry's older brother, Captain Tilney, who is dashing and charming; they immediately start flirting. Innocent Catherine cannot understand her friend's behavior, but Henry understands it all too well. The flirtation continues even when James returns.
The Tilneys (Henry, his sister Eleanor, and their father General Tilney) invite Catherine to stay with them for a few weeks at their home, Northanger Abbey. Catherine, who has read too many Gothic novels, expects the abbey to be large and somewhat frightening, and Henry encourages her fears in order to tease her. Her first night there is very stormy; she discovers mysterious manuscripts in her bedroom, and her candle suddenly goes out. The next morning, she reads the papers and discovers they are only laundry lists. She is disappointed that Northanger Abbey is pleasant and positively un-Gothic. However, there is a mysterious suite of rooms that no one ever goes into: Catherine learns that they were Mrs. Tilney's, who died nine years earlier. Catherine, with her overactive imagination, decides that since General Tilney does not seem affected by his wife's death now, he must have been indifferent or perhaps hostile to her. Perhaps he murdered her. Or she may still be alive and imprisoned in the house.
Catherine persuades Eleanor to show her Mrs. Tilney's rooms, when General Tilney suddenly appears. Catherine flees, sure that she will be punished. Later, Catherine sneaks back to Mrs. Tilney's rooms, but is startled by Henry, who is passing in the corridor. Panicked, she admits her speculations about his father. He is horrified but, surprisingly gently, corrects her wild notions. She leaves crying, fearing that Henry will want nothing to do with her. James informs Catherine, via letter, that he has been deceived by Isabella, and that he broke off their engagement because she flirted with Captain Tilney. The Tilneys are shocked; Catherine is disenchanted with Isabella. Catherine passes several more enjoyable days with the Tilneys; the General goes off to London and Eleanor becomes even more fun. One night, he returns abruptly, and Eleanor tells Catherine that the whole family has an engagement that prevents Catherine from staying any longer. Catherine must go home early the next morning, in a shocking and inhospitable move.
At home, Catherine is unhappy. Several days later, Henry visits her and explains what happened. General Tilney was enchanted with Catherine and wished her to marry Henry, but only because John Thorpe (who was infatuated with Catherine at the time) had misinfomed him that Catherine was an heiress. In London, he ran into Thorpe again, who, disappointed with Catherine, said instead that she was nearly destitute. He returned home to kick Catherine out. Henry says that he still wants to marry Catherine despite his father's disapproval. Eventually, General Tilney acquiesces, because Eleanor has become engaged to a wealthy and titled man, and he discovers that the Morlands, while not extremely rich, are far from destitute.

Characters
Catherine Morland: A 17-year-old girl who loves reading Gothic novels. Something of a tomboy in her childhood, she is wrongly worried that she isn't beautiful enough, until men start to take an interest in her at the assembly dances. Catherine lacks experience and sees her life as if she were a heroine in a Gothic novel. She sees the best in people, and to begin with always seems ignorant of other people's malignant intentions. She is the devoted sister of James Morland. She is good-natured and frank and often makes insightful comments on the inconsistencies and insincerities of people around her, usually to Henry Tilney, and thus is unintentionally sarcastic and funny. She is also seen as a humble and modest character, becoming exceedingly happy when she receives the smallest compliment. Catherine's character grows throughout the novel, as she gradually becomes a real heroine, learning from her mistakes when she is exposed to the outside world in Bath. She sometimes makes the mistake of applying Gothic novels to real life situations; for example, later in the novel she begins to suspect General Tilney of having murdered his deceased wife. Catherine soon learns that Gothic novels are really just fiction and do not always correspond with reality.
Henry Tilney: A well-read clergyman in his mid-20s, the youngest son of the wealthy Tilney family. He is Catherine's romantic interest throughout the novel, and during the course of the plot he comes to return her feelings. He is sarcastic, intuitive, and clever, given to witticisms and light flirtations (which Catherine is not always able to understand or reciprocate in kind), but he also has a sympathetic nature (he is a good brother to Eleanor), which leads him to take a liking to Catherine's naïve straightforward sincerity.
John Thorpe: An arrogant and extremely boastful young man who certainly appears distasteful to the likes of Catherine.
Isabella Thorpe: A manipulative and self-serving young woman on a quest to obtain a well-off husband; at the time, marriage was the only way for most young women to become "established" with a household of their own (as opposed to becoming a dependent spinster aunt), and Isabella lacks most assets (such as wealth or family connections to bring to a marriage) that would make her a "catch" on the "marriage market". Upon her arrival in Bath she is without acquaintance, leading her to immediately form a quick friendship with Catherine Morland. Additionally, when she learns that Catherine is the sister to James Morland (whom Isabella suspects to be worth more than he is in reality), she goes to every length to ensure a connection between the two families.
General Tilney: A stern and rigid retired general with an obsessive nature, General Tilney is the sole surviving parent to his three children Frederick, Henry, and Eleanor.
Eleanor Tilney: Henry's sister, she plays little part in Bath, but takes on more importance in Northanger Abbey. A convenient chaperon for Catherine and Henry's times together. Obedient daughter, warm friend, sweet sister, but lonely under her father's tyranny.
Frederick Tilney: Henry's older brother (the presumed heir to the Northanger estate), an officer in the army who enjoys pursuing flirtations with pretty girls who are willing to offer him some encouragement (though without any ultimate serious intent on his part).
Mr. Allen: A kindly man, with some slight resemblance to Mr. Bennet of Pride and Prejudice.
Mrs. Allen: Somewhat vacuous, she sees everything in terms of her obsession with clothing and fashion, and has a tendency to utter repetitions of remarks made by others in place of original conversation.
Major themes
• The intricacies and tedium of high society, particularly partner selection.
• The conflicts of marriage for love and marriage for property.
• Life lived as if in a Gothic novel and the obsession with all things gothic, one filled with danger and intrigue.
• The dangers of believing life is the same as fiction.
• The maturation of the young into skeptical adulthood, the loss of imagination, innocence and good faith.
• Things are not what they seem at first.
In addition, Catherine Morland realises she is not to rely upon others, such as Isabella, who are negatively influential on her, but to be single minded and independent. It is only through bad experiences that Catherine really begins to properly mature individually and grow up.
• social criticism (comedy of manners)
• parody of the gothic novels "gothic and anti-gothic" attitudes

Famous passages and quotations
• The so-called "Defence of the Novel", a narrative aside in which Jane Austen in her role as author defends novels (which were then widely considered trashy sensationalist reading, with much the same reputation as popular romance novels have today) — comparing them favorably with other genres of writing, that were usually considered to have much better claims to be high literary art at that time.
• "history, real solemn history, I cannot be interested in. ... I read it a little as a duty, but it tells me nothing that does not either vex or weary me. The quarrels of popes and kings, with wars or pestilences in every page; the men all so good for nothing, and hardly any women at all — it is very tiresome."
(Catherine Morland)
• "She was heartily ashamed of her ignorance. A misplaced shame. Where people wish to attach [i.e. attract], they should always be ignorant. To come with a well-informed mind is to come with an inability of administering to the vanity of others, which a sensible person would always wish to avoid. A woman especially, if she have the misfortune of knowing anything, should conceal it as well as she can. The advantages of natural folly in a beautiful girl have been already set forth by the capital pen of a sister author; and to her treatment of the subject I will only add, in justice to men, that though to the larger and more trifling part of the sex, imbecility in females is a great enhancement of their personal charms, there is a portion of them too reasonable and too well informed themselves to desire anything more in woman than ignorance."
(A semi-facetious explanation of part of the reasons why Henry Tilney starts to be attracted to Catherine Morland; often considered "proto-feminist".)
• Henry Tilney's pseudo-gothic narrative, which he extemporises while driving with Catherine to the Abbey. A highly-coloured satirical account of the difficulties which Catherine might encounter at the Abbey if real life were like Catherine's favorite gothic novels, it holds Catherine spellbound until Henry can "no longer command solemnity either of subject or voice".[1]
• "Prepare for your sister-in-law, Eleanor, and such a sister-in-law as you must delight in! Open, candid, artless, guileless, with affections strong but simple, forming no pretensions, and knowing no disguise."
(Henry Tilney simultaneously sarcastically describing Isabella Thorpe, whom it is feared Frederick Tilney will marry, and sincerely describing Catherine Morland, whom he intends to marry himself. Eleanor Tilney fully understands him when she replies ""Such a sister-in-law, Henry, I should delight in" with a smile, but Henry's double meaning goes over Catherine's head.)
• "I do not understand you." "Then we are on very unequal terms, for I understand you perfectly well." "Me? Yes; I cannot speak well enough to be unintelligible."
The famous last line is Catherine's, and Henry praises her for her satire on modern language. Catherine has been trying to justify Isabella's dancing with Captain Frederick Tilney, Henry's brother, when she has declared that she will not dance all night due to the absence of her fiancé, Catherine's brother James.

Literary significance & criticism
Northanger Abbey is fundamentally a parody of Gothic fiction. Austen turns the conventions of eighteenth-century novels on their head, by making her heroine a plain and undistinguished girl from a middle-class family, allowing the heroine to fall in love with the hero before he has a serious thought of her, and exposing the heroine's romantic fears and curiosities as groundless. Austen biographer Claire Tomalin speculates that Austen may have begun this book, which is more explicitly comic than her other works and contains many literary allusions that her parents and siblings would have enjoyed, as a family entertainment-- a piece of lighthearted parody to be read aloud by the fireside. Some have considered the novel to be Jane Austen's best work, as it is, in fact, the least like Jane Austen's greater corpus than the remainder of her oeuvre. There is real significance in this observation, due primarily to the fact that Austen's works are generally characterized as naive and overly simplified, having no real connection with the real world. [1]
Northanger Abbey exposes the difference between reality and fantasy and questions who can be trusted as a true companion and who might actually be a shallow, false friend. It is considered to be the most light-hearted of her novels.

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22 George Eliot: Adam Bede –summary needed
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Adam Bede, the first novel written by George Eliot (the pen name of Mary Ann Evans), was published in 1859. It was published pseudonymously, even though Evans was a well-published and highly respected scholar of her time. The novel has remained in print ever since, and is used in university studies of 19th century English literature.[1][2]

Plot summary
According to The Oxford Companion to English Literature (1967),
"the plot is founded on a story told to George Eliot by her aunt Elizabeth Evans, a Methodist preacher, and the original of Dinah Morris of the novel, of a confession of child-murder, made to her by a girl in prison."
The story's plot follows four characters' rural lives in the fictional community of Hayslope—a rural, pastoral and close-knit community in 1799. The novel revolves around a love triangle between beautiful but thoughtless Hetty Sorrel, Captain Arthur Donnithorne, the young squire who seduces her, Adam Bede, her unacknowledged lover, and Dinah Morris, Hetty's cousin, a fervent Methodist lay preacher.
Adam is a local carpenter, in love with Hetty. She is attracted to Arthur, the local squire's grandson, and falls in love with him. When Adam interrupts a tryst between them, Adam and Arthur fight. Arthur agrees to give up Hetty and leaves Hayslope to return to his militia. After he leaves, Hetty discovers she is pregnant. She agrees to marry Adam but shortly before their marriage, has second thoughts and leaves in search of Arthur. She cannot find him; unwilling to return to the village on account of the shame and ostracism she would have to endure, she delivers her baby with the assistance of a friendly woman she encounters. Later, she kills the child by abandoning it in a field, where it dies of exposure.
She is caught and tried for child murder. She is found guilty and sentenced to hang. When Arthur Donnithorne, on leave from the militia for his grandfather's funeral, hears of her impending execution, he races to the court and has the sentence commuted to transportation.
Ultimately, Adam and Dinah, who gradually becomes aware that she loves the carpenter, marry and live peacefully with his family.

Allusions/references to other works
The importance of the Lyrical Ballads to the way Adam Bede is written has often been noted. Like its model, Adam Bede features minutely detailed empirical and psychological observations about illiterate "common folk" who, because of their greater proximity to nature than to culture, are taken as emblematic of human nature in its more pure form. So behind its humble appearance this is a novel of great ambition.[3]
Genre painting and the novel arose together as middle-class art forms and retained close connections until the end of the nineteenth century. According to Richard Stang, it was a French treatise of 1846 on Dutch and Flemish painting that first popularized the application of the term realism to fiction.[4] And certainly it is with Dutch, Flemish, and English genre painting that George Eliot's realism is most often compared. She herself invites the comparison in chapter 17 of Adam Bede, and Mario Praz applies it to all of her work in his study of The Hero in Eclipse in Victorian Fiction.[5]

Literary significance & criticism
Immediately recognized as a significant literary work, Adam Bede has enjoyed a largely positive critical reputation since its publication. An anonymous review in The Athenaeum in 1859 praised it as a "novel of the highest class," and The Times called it "a first-rate novel." Contemporary reviewers, often influenced by nostalgia for the earlier period represented in Bede, enthusiastically praised Eliot's characterizations and realistic representations of rural life. Charles Dickens wrote:
"The whole country life that the story is set in, is so real, and so droll and genuine, and yet so selected and polished by art, that I cannot praise it enough to you." (Hunter, S. 122)
In fact, in early criticism, the tragedy of infanticide has often been overlooked in favor of the peaceful idyllic world and familiar personalities Eliot recreated.[6]
Other critics have been less generous. Henry James, among others, resented the narrator's interventions. In particular, Chapter 15 has fared poorly among scholars because of the author's/narrator's moralizing and meddling in an attempt to sway readers' opinions of Hetty and Dinah. Other critics have objected to the resolution of the story. In the final moments, Hetty, about to be executed for infanticide, is saved by her seducer, Arthur Donnithorne. Critics have argued that this deus ex machina ending negates the moral lessons learned by the main characters. Without the eleventh hour reprieve, the suffering of Adam, Arthur, and Hetty would have been more realistically concluded. In addition, some scholars feel that Adam's marriage to Dinah is another instance of the author's/narrator's intrusiveness. These instances have been found to directly conflict with the otherwise realistic images and events of the novel.[6]

Characters
• The Bede family
o Adam Bede is described as a tall, stalwart, moral, and unusually competent carpenter. He is 26 years old at the beginning of the novel, and bears an "expression of large-hearted intelligence."
o Seth Bede is Adam's younger brother, and is also a carpenter, but he is not particularly competent, and "...his glance, instead of being keen, is confiding and benign."
o Lisbeth Bede is Adam's and Seth's mother. She is "an anxious, spare, yet vigorous old woman, clean as a snowdrop."
o Thias Bede is Adam's and Seth's father. He has become an alcoholic, and drowns in Chapter IV while returning from a tavern.
o Gyp is Adam's dog, who follows his every move, and looks "..up in his master's face with patient expectation."
• The Poyser family
o Martin Poyser and his wife rent Hall Farm from Squire Donnithorne and have turned it into a very successful enterprise.
o Marty and Tommy Poyser are their sons.
o Totty Poyser is their somewhat spoiled and frequently petulant toddler.
o Hetty Sorrel is Mr. Poyser's orphaned niece, who lives and works at the Poyser farm. Her beauty, as described by George Eliot, is the sort "which seems made to turn the heads not only of men, but of all intelligent mammals, even of women."
o Dinah Morris is another orphaned niece of the Poysers. She is also beautiful - "It was one of those faces that make one think of white flowers with light touches of colour on their pure petals" - but has chosen to become an itinerant Methodist preacher, and dresses very plainly.
• The Irwine family
o Adolphus Irwine is the Rector, or pastor, of Broxton. He is patient and tolerant, and his expression is a "mixture of bonhomie and distinction". He lives with his mother and sister.
o Mrs. Irwine, his mother, is "...clearly one of those children of royalty who have never doubted their right divine and never met with any one so absurd as to question it."
o Pastor Irwine's sister, Miss Anne, is an invalid. His gentleness is illustrated by a passage in which he takes the time to remove his boots before going upstairs to visit her, lest she be disturbed by noise. She and the pastor's other sister are unmarried.
• The Donnithorne family
o Squire Donnithorne owns an estate.
o Arthur Donnithorne, his grandson, stands to inherit the estate; he is twenty years old at the opening of the novel. He is a handsome and charming sportsman.
• Other characters
o Bartle Massey is the local schoolteacher, a somewhat misogynist bachelor who has taught Adam Bede.
o Mr. Craig is the gardener at the Donnithorne estate.
o Jonathan Burge is Adam's employer at a carpentry workshop.
o Villagers in the area include Ben Cranage, Chad Cranage, his daughter Chad's Bess, and Joshua Rann.

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23. Wuthering Heights - By Emily Brontë (1818-1848)
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Plot Summary
.......In 1801 in the Yorkshire moors of Northern England, a Mr. Lockwood rents a house on a manor, Thushcross Grange, from a dark and mysterious landlord, a man about 40 named Heathcliff. He lives down the road four miles in a 300-year-old estate called Wuthering Heights. Intrigued by Heathcliff, Lockwood asks the housekeeper, 43-year-old Ellen Dean–whom everyone in the region calls Nelly–to tell him Heathcliff’s story. She obliges, and he in turn writes down everything she says. Here is the story that Nelly tells and Lockwood repeats in his diary.
.......Forty-one years before, in 1760, a gentleman in the district, Mr. Earnshaw, who owns Wuthering Heights and farms its land–travels to Liverpool on business and encounters a street waif, a dark-skinned boy abandoned by his parents. He speaks a strange language. Was he perhaps abandoned by a foreign visitor to England? Poor thing. Earnshaw cannot leave him behind. He returns with him to Wuthering Heights and raises the boy, calling him Heathcliff, along with his own children–a girl, Catherine, and a boy, Hindley. Also in the household are two servants, Joseph, a cranky old man, and Nelly Dean. Cathy resents Heathcliff at first, but in time warms to him. She is a happy, spirited, likable child–but full of the devil. Nelly says of her:
..............Certainly she had ways with her such as I never saw a child take up before; and she put all of us past our patience fifty times and oftener in a day. From the hour she came downstairs till the hour she went to bed we had not a minute's.security that she wouldn't be in mischief. Her spirits were always at high-water mark, her tongue always going–singing, laughing, and plaguing everybody who would not do the same. A wild, wicked slip she was; but she had the bonniest eye, the sweetest smile, and lightest foot in the parish.
In their playtime adventures on the moors, Heathcliff and Cathy draw close, intimate. However, Hindley, older and stronger than Heathcliff, treats him cruelly because he sees the boy as a rival for the affections of his father and sister. After his wife dies, old Earnshaw seems to prefer the company of Heathcliff to Hindley, and Heathcliff delights in his favored status while Hindley becomes all the more hostile. But Hindley’s abuse of Heathcliff meets with severe censure if old Earnshaw witnesses it. As Nelly observes, “Twice, or thrice, Hindley's manifestations of scorn, while his father was near, roused the old man to a fury.” Eventually, Earnshaw sends Hindley off to school while Heathcliff remains behind.
.......Three years pass, Mr. Earnshaw dies, and Hindley inherits Wuthering Heights. He is now grown, about 20; Heathcliff and Cathy are just entering their adolescent years. When Hindley returns to Wuthering Heights for the funeral, he brings a wife, Frances. One of his first tasks as master of the estate is to make Heathcliff a lowly stable hand and field laborer who must now live with the servants. Cathy, however–who has grown into a beautiful woman full of spirit–continues her close relationship with Heathcliff and, over the years, falls in love with him in spite of his reduced social status.
.......One day, when they visit Thrushcross Grange–the home of the snooty Linton family–a bulldog bites Catherine, and she remains with the Lintons for several weeks while recuperating from her injury. After becoming acquainted with the Linton children, Edgar and Isabella, she is captivated by Edgar’s aristocratic lifestyle and elegant trappings–and by his obvious interest in her. If she were his wife, she would have all that he has. When she returns to Wuthering Heights, she exhibits dignity, refinement, and good manners, taught her by the Lintons. Everyone except Heathcliff is pleased. He thinks her newfound social savoir-faire will put her out of his reach. Though she assures him that nothing has changed between them, she nevertheless cultivates her desire to be a woman of standing who lives like the Lintons.
.......Meanwhile, Hindley’s wife, Frances, has a child, Hareton, but dies shortly afterward. To drown his grief, Hindley turns to alcohol. He also makes Heathcliff a whipping boy, treating him even more cruelly than before.
.......Cathy–though now so passionately in love with Heathcliff that she says the two of them are “the same person”–confides to Nelly that she has decided to marry Edgar Linton, who has made it clear that he wants her, because it would be degrading to marry Heathcliff. Unfortunately, Heathcliff overhears the conversation and immediately abandons Wuthering Heights. Hindley has wronged him–and now Cathy. While running after him in the moors during a storm, Cathy falls ill with fever and recuperates at the Lintons. The fever infects Mr. and Mrs. Linton, and they die.
.......With Heathcliff gone from the Heights–who knows where?–Cathy marries Edgar, and time passes peacefully and happily as marriage treats them kindly. But one day, Heathcliff returns to the moors and moves into Wuthering Heights with Hindley, now an alcoholic, and Hareton. Heathcliff is cultured, educated, and wealthy, apparently having made his mark in business. He is also full of wrath and means to unleash it against all who mistreated him. First, he lends drinking and gambling money to Hindley, knowing full well it will hasten his descent into the abyss of alcohol, debt, and desperation. Then he acquires liens on Wuthering Heights and turns Hareton against Hindley.
.......When Heathcliff visits Cathy and Edgar at Thrushcross Grange, his attentions to Cathy and to Edgar’s naive sister, Isabella, infuriate Edgar. Consequently, he and Heathcliff quarrel and become fierce enemies. Vengeful Heathcliff then persuades guileless Isabella, who is taken by his dark good looks, to elope with him. He does not love Isabella; he wants only to spite Edgar and Cathy and to gain a potential legal interest in Thrushcross Grange. These events dispirit Cathy, who believes she is the root cause of all the conflict, and her health declines. To complicate matters, she is pregnant. Shortly after giving birth to a daughter–named Catherine after her mother–Cathy dies. Heathcliff, overcome with grief, cannot let go and prays that Cathy’s spirit will haunt him. In the meantime, Heathcliff abuses Isabella–he has loathed her from the day he met her–and she escapes and takes refuge near London. Hindley–beaten down by alcoholism, debt, and Heathcliff–dies a few months later.
.......Heathcliff then sets himself to the task of raising Hindley’s son, Hareton. But he makes the boy a common laborer, treating the boy cruelly, as Hindley had once treated him. Hareton receives no schooling, no training for a respectable career. Consequently, he grows up ignorant, unloved. In London, Isabella bears Heathcliff’s child, Linton, and raises him to adolescence without ever telling him the identity of his father. After she dies, Edgar brings the boy to Thrushcross Grange, but Heathcliff–having the law on his side–claims Linton and takes him to Wuthering Heights. He is a sickly and ill-tempered boy, and Heathcliff despises him. But he is thinking ahead. He will have use for the boy.
.......Many years pass. Catherine becomes an engaging child loved by all around her. During this time, Nelly Dean becomes her nanny. Although unaware of Wuthering Heights and its dark history, young Cathy happens upon it while exploring the moors and becomes Linton’s friend. After Nelly forbids her to visit Wuthering Heights, she returns anyway and continues her friendship with Linton, although she looks down upon Hareton. Nelly then tells Edgar, who is in poor health, about the visits, and he puts an end to them.
.......However, Heathcliff carries out a deceptive scheme in which he forces Linton to pretend that he loves Cathy. Secret letters are exchanged, and one day Cathy returns to Wuthering Heights to see Linton. Heathcliff locks her in. When Nelly comes to fetch Cathy to Thrushcross Grange, he imprisons her as well, then forces Catherine to marry Linton. If Edgar dies before Linton–who remains sickly and is in fact dying, Heathcliff will gain control of Thrushcross Grange. All goes according to Heathcliff’s plan: Edgar dies first, then Linton.
.......Heathcliff now controls Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. He also controls Hareton and young Cathy, who have no choice but to remain with him and the housekeeper, Zillah, at Wuthering Heights in order to survive. Heathcliff rents Thrushcross Grange to Lockwood (the visitor at the beginning of the story). Here, Nelly’s narrative ends, and Lockwood ends his visit at Thrushcross Grange and goes to London. However, six months later he returns and hears the rest of the story, as follows:
.......In time, young Cathy learns to tolerate Hareton and even teaches him lessons. Seeing the children together revives Heathcliff’s memory of his happy days with the elder Cathy. It is a memory that preoccupies him, robbing him of appetite and sleep. He even sees and speaks to ghostly images of Cathy. Eventually, he himself falls ill–perhaps desiring to die so he can reunite with Cathy–and softens his attitude toward Hareton and young Cathy. Then he informs Nelly that he plans to make a will. One day, she discovers him dead. A physician cannot determine the precise cause. He is buried near Cathy, according to the provisions of the will.
.......Stories are told later about how people of the area see Heathcliff alone, or Heathcliff and Catherine together, walking on the moors. When Lockwood asks Nelly about young Catherine and Hareton, she reports that they now control Heathcliff’s properties and will marry on Jan. 1, then live at Thrushcross Grange. At last, Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange are united and at peace–presumably.
Setting
The story begins in 1801, then flashes back to the 1770's and eventually returns to the early 1800's. The locale is the Yorkshire moors in northern England. A moor is tract of mostly treeless wasteland where heather thrives and water saturates the earth. The action takes place at two estates, Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, about four miles apart.
Characters
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Mr. Earnshaw Owner of Wuthering Heights and father of two children, Hindley and Cathy. He adopts a street waif, Heathcliff, and dotes on the child, arousing jealousy in Hindley. After Mr. Earnshaw dies, Hindley inherits Wuthering Heights and makes Heathcliff a common stable boy and field laborer.
Heathcliff A waif rescued from the streets of Liverpool and brought to Wuthering Heights by Mr. Earnshaw. Heathcliff grows up there, becoming an enemy of Earnshaw’s son, Hindley, but falling in love with Earnshaw’s daughter, Cathy. While Heathcliff is a small child, Hindley mistreats him. When Heathcliff is a young man, Cathy betrays him by marrying Edgar Linton. Heathcliff abandons Wuthering Heights but returns three years later a wealthy, educated gentleman. He vows revenge against all who had wronged him.
Cathy Earnshaw’s beautiful and spirited daughter, who falls in love with Heathcliff but marries Edgar Linton instead.
Hindley Earnshaw’s son, who torments Heathcliff when the latter is a small child many years younger than Hindley. After Hindley inherits Wuthering Heights, he continues to mistreat Heathcliff.
Frances Earnshaw Hindley’s wife. Like Hindley, she maltreats Heathcliff. She dies after the birth of Hareton.
Edgar Linton Elegant aristocrat at Thrushcross Grange whom Cathy marries to gain social position and the finer things of life.
Isabella Linton Edgar’s naive sister. Heathcliff marries her to spite Edgar and Cathy, then treats Isabella cruelly.
Ellen (Nelly) Dean Level-headed housekeeper at Wuthering Heights and later a nursemaid at Thrushcross Grange. Because she is at the center or on the periphery of all the action in the novel, she is the narrator of the story, telling it to Mr. Lockwood, who writes it down for retelling later.
Mr. Lockwood A visitor to Thrushcross Grange. When he becomes interested in the mysterious Heathcliff, he asks Nelly Dean to tell him the story of Heathcliff and Wuthering Heights.
Young Catherine The daughter of Edgar Linton and Cathy
Hareton The son of Hindley Earnshaw and his wife, Frances
Linton Sickly child of Heathcliff and Isabella
Joseph A crabby old servant
Zillah A housekeeper
Type of Work
Wuthering Heights is a novel of romance, revenge, and tragedy. It exhibits many characteristics of the so-called Gothic novel, which focuses on dark, mysterious events. The typical Gothic novel unfolds at one or more creepy sites, such as a dimly lit castle, an old mansion on a hilltop, a misty cemetery, a forlorn countryside, or the laboratory of a scientist conducting frightful experiments. In some Gothic novels, characters imagine that they see ghosts and monsters. In others, the ghosts and monsters are real. The weather in a Gothic novel is often dreary or foul: There may be high winds that rattle windowpanes, electrical storms with lightning strikes, and gray skies that brood over landscapes. (The word wuthering refers to violent wind.) The Gothic novel derives its name from the Gothic architectural style popular in Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries. Gothic structures–such as cathedrals–featured cavernous interiors with deep shadows, stone walls that echoed the footsteps of worshippers, gargoyles looming on exterior ledges, and soaring spires suggestive of a supernatural presence.
Publication
Wuthering Heights was published in December 1847 under the pseudonym Ellis Bell. The novel–assumed to be the work of a man–did not receive immediate critical claim because it offended Victorian moral sensibilities. About a year after Emily Brontë's death in December 1848, her sister, Charlotte (author of Jane Eyre), revealed Emily as the author of Wuthering Heights in a second edition of the novel, and the novel eventually received the praise it deserved.
Themes
Theme 1: Love gone wrong. Relationships in Wuthering Heights are like the moors: dark, stormy, twisted. Cathy loves Heathcliff but marries Edgar Linton. Heathcliff loves Cathy but marries Isabella Linton. Mr. Earnshaw loves his adopted son, Heathcliff, better than his biological son, Hindley, causing Hindley to despise Heathcliff. Linton and young Cathy are forced to marry.
Theme 2: Cruelty begets cruelty. Hindley’s maltreatment of Heathcliff helps turn the latter into a vengeful monster. In developing this theme, Emily Bronte is ahead of her time, demonstrating that suffering abuse as a child can lead to inflicting abuse as an adult.
Theme 3: Revenge. Heathcliff’s desire to get even against all who wronged him is at times so strong that it subverts his other emotions, including love.
Theme 4: Lure of Success and Social Standing. Cathy marries Edgar after becoming infatuated with his image as a cultured gentleman with wealth enough to meet her every need. Isabella marries Heathcliff after becoming infatuated with an idealized, romantic image of him.
Theme 5: Class distinctions. Heathcliff’s fury erupts after Cathy decides to marry “up” into the world of the Lintons, and not down into the world of Heathcliff.
Theme 6: Fate. The entire novel depends on the forces unleashed when Mr. Earnshaw happens upon an orphan child, Heathcliff, on a street in Liverpool and returns with him to Wuthering Heights.
Theme 7: Prejudice. The upper crust, the Lintons, look down upon the lower crust, Heathcliff and his kind.
Theme 8: The moors as a reflection of life around them (or vice versa) and life beyond. The dark, stormy moors–where only low-growing plants such as heather thrive–symbolize the passionate and sometimes perverted emotional lives of the residents of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. In the gloomy wasteland, the Yorkshire folk, including Heathcliff himself, sometimes report seeing ghosts of people buried in the moors.
Climax
Most analysts of Wuthering Heights maintain that the climax of the novel occurs when Cathy dies, unarguably a decisive turning point. However, one may fairly conclude that the climax comes earlier–in particular when Heathcliff overhears Cathy say she intends to marry Edgar Linton. This event deeply wounds Heathcliff, causes him to abandon Wuthering Heights, and triggers the dreadful events that follow.
Plot Structure: Frame Tale
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To tell her story, Brontë uses two narrators, Mr. Lockwood and Ellen Dean, called Nelly. Lockwood, who rents Thrushcross Grange, begins the narrative; Nelly takes it over after he asks her to tell him the story of Heathcliff. Lockwood and Nelly thus combine to form a picture, Lockwood acting as the "outer narrator" who frames the picture and Nelly acting as the "inner narrator" who paints the picture.
Study Questions and Essay Topics
• Who is the most admirable character in the novel? Who is the least admirable?
• In addition to love, what other emotions have a powerful influence on the central characters?
• Write an informative essay that analyzes the personality of Heathcliff?
• To what extent does social status affect the course of action?
• In what ways does the setting reflect the action and the personalities of the characters?
• Does author Brontë inject her own views into the novel or remain aloof and objective?
• In an argumentative essay, defend the thesis that Cathy remains a pivotal character even after her death.
• In what ways are the choices Cathy faces like those of the typical American woman of the 21st Century?
• Heathcliff is a dark-skinned waif whom Mr. Earnshaw found on the streets of Liverpool. Speculate on where Heathcliff came from and what his parents were like. Do you believe his adult character was shaped more by the genes he inherited or by the environment in which Earnshaw reared him at Wuthering Heights?

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24. Conan Doyle: The Hound of Baskervilles
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OVERALL ANALYSES - The Hound of the Baskervilles
PLOT STRUCTURE ANALYSIS
The story is linear for the most part, following the case from Watson’s perspective. This gives the reader the benefit of seeing the story from a perspective similar to their own. It is a brief time span, probably only a matter of a few weeks, with most of the climactic events taking part in the last two days. (Though there are dates mentioned periodically, there are holes in the chronology that are difficult to account for exactly.)
Conan Doyle employs a number of different ways to tell the plot, including Dr. Mortimer reading the old warning of the legend and the newspaper article, Watson’s reports and diary entries, and recounting conversations. The descriptive setting also contributes to the plot by adding the right atmosphere for the legend to be believable.
As expected in a detective story, the plot basically follows the collection of clues and results. While still in London, Holmes pursues three possible leads-whether Barrymore is at the Hall, which hotel the cut-up newspaper message came from, and the cabman’s number-but is unable to get anything out of them. Watson then sends reports from Baskerville Hall, while Holmes gathers information from nearby.



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Watson gets to the bottom of the Barrymore situation on his own and, then when the two collaborate in person, more details of Stapleton come out. Though we know then who the mastermind behind the crime is, there is still no case against him. Holmes formulates one, having Sir Henry leave the Stapletons’s house by way of the moor, while Holmes, Watson, and Lestrade sit in wait for the hound.
The story is resolved when the hound is shot and Stapleton is presumed dead, pulled under by a misstep into the swampy land. Events are further concluded by Holmes’s summary in the final chapter.
THEMES - THEME ANALYSIS
Evil/ Supernatural
Though they seem to have little respect for the peasants’ opinions, in this case everyone from Dr. Mortimer to Watson on occasion are led to think that perhaps the hound is just a curse and nothing can be done to stop it. The air of supernatural is all about the moor, from the fog and swampy land to the mostly-intact houses of Neolithic man.
However, as it turns out, it is just an evil man and vicious hound behind the crimes. The latter’s physical appearance, with fiery eyes and mouth, certainly fits the typical image of an evil beast. Stapleton’s looks do not give a lot away about his demeanor (except his connection to Hugo Baskerville) but his actions are quite awful. Aside from the murder and other crimes, he abuses his wife, lies to his mistress, and draws Sir Henry into a heartbreak before trying to kill him. The man and hound both prove to be quite mortal though and are dead by the end of the novel.
Selden is another criminal, who likewise committed a murder. However, his crime does not seem as bad for several reasons. As readers we are left without the personal details of the crime, and so cannot easily sympathize with the victim. Also, we are inclined to trust Holmes’s judgment and he lives alongside Selden among the ancient dwellings with no objection. Finally, he does have a woman to mourn for him (his sister), whereas Stapleton is remembered with hatred.
Money / Power / Dehumanization
This is closely related to the previous theme, but with some additional features. Stapleton’s corrupt behavior comes about in the pursuit of money and power. Though in the right hands, such as Sir Charles’s or Sir Henry’s, they can be used for the benefit of everyone involved, with a man like Stapleton seeking control, there is great danger.
The dehumanization can be seen in the parallels involving Stapleton’s insects. There is Mrs. Stapleton who is tied up in the same room as the collections, and in a similar manner. Also, there are the mentions of how Stapleton himself will end up like his insects, caught in a net and kept in the case collection. He has as much movement about the swampy land as the moths and butterflies since he knows the way about on safe ground; however, one misstep and he ends up dead, like the insects in his collection.
A lesser issue of dehumanization is the shifting of identities. Stapleton steals Holmes’s identity for the cab ride, using it as easily as he has the fabricated names of Vandeleur and Stapleton.
Protection
What drives the pace of the novel is the balance between life and death that hangs about the characters until the criminal is discovered and dealt with. Holmes and Watson are important in this role of protecting the life of Sir Henry until Stapleton has been driven to his death, though they come close to failing several times. Among the most notable instances are when they see the body of Selden and mistake it for Sir Henry, and at the end when Holmes expresses some regret over having to put Sir Henry through such trauma in order to expose Stapleton.
Protection can take the form of information or weaponry. With more knowledge about the important players in the case and an idea of how things unfolded, Holmes is able to quickly identify his suspect and those who can help him. Anticipation of Stapleton’s next move required information and was a key part in keeping Sir Henry as safe as possible. Watson’s revolver is also seen as protection, so Holmes makes sure he has it when he leaves London, and checks that they are all armed when the hound is about to appear.
Detection
This category includes several aspects, starting with the fact that Holmes is a detective. Because of his expertise, he notices more about objects and people than most and picks up on leads from passing details. The plot is set up to be very complimentary to this sense of making deductions and methodical clue gathering, with the reader gradually being introduced to his procedures and then learning more information about the case.
Another aspect would be that of avoiding detection. The convict Selden is a clear example of this, who must hide from the armed soldier that Watson notes on their arrival and Frankland’s persistent scans of the moor with his telescope in order to escape. He dies anyhow, when the scent of Sir Henry on his clothing leads the hound to mistakenly detect and pursue him. Stapleton is another criminal, trying to avoid detection by Holmes (who is himself hiding out for some time).
This hints at another interplay, between crime and science. Both are represented in the two sides of detection, since one is concerned with cover-up and the other unveiling it. Stapleton has these two parts in his person, as an entomologist but also a murderer. Holmes does as well to a lesser degree, since his connection with science is confined to the methods, and not the theories (logical thought, but not about planetary rotation).
Family Lines
Some of the relatives in the novel are quite different from each other, such as Mrs. Barrymore and Selden, and Sir Henry and Stapleton. Of greater focus, is the similarity among descendents; as Holmes says “‘[a] study of family portraits is enough to convert a man to the doctrine of reincarnation.’” Hugo Baskerville supposedly began the curse of the Baskervilles and in a way he actually did. His looks are a reflection that his personality as well has been passed on to a particular member, such as the original fleeing Rodger Baskerville. His son (Stapleton) became the Baskerville hound, hunting down and killing the other heirs.
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Plot summary
When Sir Charles Baskerville is found dead in the alley by the moor, Dr. Mortimer goes to London to get Sherlock Holmes’s help in deciding on the proper course of action for the new heir. He reads the manuscript about the family curse, supposedly begun over Hugo Baskerville’s inappropriate actions, and a newspaper article about Sir Charles’s death. After this, the doctor reveals that there is another piece of information-there were footprints of a hound a short distance from the fallen body. Holmes questions him over the details, wishing that he could have been called in earlier to examine the scene, but this was not possible, given the need for a tenant in the Hall and in the interest of preserving the doctor’s scientific reputation.
It is also told that Sir Charles appeared to be waiting for someone, though he was an elderly man; that his footprints showed he had been running away from the house in his fright; and that his heart was weak, so that he was to leave for London the next day. Though Holmes does not believe in the curse himself, he is intrigued by the case and agrees to meet the next day to discuss it.
Sir Henry (the heir) arrives from Canada and is already a little shaken. A note warning him to stay away from the moor was delivered at his hotel, where no one had known he would be staying. Holmes recognizes the cut-out letters from the previous day’s Times; being pressed for time, the sender had not been able to find the word “moor” and had handwritten it. The poor quality of the pen shows that it was written from a hotel, and the scent of perfume on the note points to a woman (this latter piece of evidence Holmes keeps to himself until the end). Sir Henry has also had a new boot stolen.
Once Sir Henry has been filled in, they make plans to meet again at the hotel later that day once he has had time to think, but it is clear that he will insist on going to Baskerville Hall. Holmes and Watson trail Sir Henry and Dr. Mortimer on their way back to the hotel, and discover that a man with a black beard (likely a fake) is following the pair in a cab. The cab drives off when the man discovers Holmes has spotted him, but the detective is able to get the cab number. Holmes then stops in at the messenger office and employs Cartwright to go around to the hotels, bribe the employees, and look through the wastepaper in search of a cut-up copy of the Times.
By the time they go to the hotel, Sir Henry has had another boot stolen, an old one now. When the first missing boot is discovered before the meeting is over, Holmes begins to privately realize they must be dealing with a real hound (hence the emphasis on the scent of the item). When conversation turns to the man in the cab, Dr. Mortimer says that Barrymore, the servant at Baskerville Hall, has a beard, and a telegram is sent to check on his whereabouts. The inheritance is also discussed-while it is a sizable amount, the next in line is James Desmond, an older man with few interests in wealth.
At the end of the meeting, it is decided that, Holmes being tied up in London with other cases, Watson will accompany Sir Henry to the Hall and report back in detail. Later that evening, telegrams from Cartwright (who was unable to find the newspaper) and Baskerville Hall (where Barrymore apparently is) bring an end to those leads. Also, a visit from John Clayton, who was driving the cab with the black-bearded man, is of little help. He does say that the man told him that he was the detective Holmes, much to the shock and amusement of the actual Holmes.
Dr. Mortimer, Watson, and Sir Henry set off for Baskerville Hall the next day. The baronet is excited to see it and his connection with the land is clear, but the mood is soon dampened. Soldiers are about the area, on the lookout for the escaped convict Selden, Barrymore and his wife want to depart from the area as soon as is convenient, and the Hall is in general a somber place. Watson has trouble sleeping that night, and hears a woman crying, though the next morning Barrymore denies that this could be so.
Watson checks with the postmaster and learns that the telegram was not actually delivered into the hands of Barrymore, so it is no longer certain that he was at the Hall, and not in London. On his way back, Watson meets Stapleton, a naturalist familiar with the moor even though he has only been in the area for two years. They hear a moan that the peasants attribute to the hound, but Stapleton attributes it to the cry of a bittern, or possibly the bog settling. He then runs off after a specimen, but Watson is not alone for long before Miss Stapleton approaches him. Mistaking him for Sir Henry, she urgently warns him to leave the area, but drops the subject when her brother returns. The three walk to Merripit House (the Stapleton’s home), and during the discussion, Watson learns that Stapleton used to run a school. Though he is offered lunch and a look at Stapleton’s collections, Watson departs for the Hall. Before he gets far along the path, Miss Stapleton overtakes him and plays down her warning.
Sir Henry soon meets her and becomes romantically interested, despite her brother’s intrusions. Watson meets another neighbor, Mr. Frankland, a harmless man whose primary focus is on lawsuits. Barrymore draws increasing suspicion, as Watson sees him walk with a candle into an empty room, hold it up to the window, and then leave. Realizing that the room’s only advantage is its view out on the moor, Watson and Sir Henry are determined to figure out what is going on.
Meanwhile, during the day, Sir Henry continues to pursue Miss Stapleton until her brother runs up on them and yells angrily. He later explains to the disappointed baronet that it was not personal, he was just afraid of losing his only companion so quickly. To show there are no hard feelings, he invites Sir Henry to dine with him and his sister on Friday.
Sir Henry then becomes the person doing the surprising, when he walks in with Watson on Barrymore, catching him at night in the room with the candle. He refuses to answer their questions, since it is not his secret to tell, but Mrs. Barrymore’s. She tells them that Selden is her brother and the candle is a signal to allow him to get food. When the couple returns to their room, Sir Henry and Watson go off to find the convict, despite the poor weather and frightening sound of the hound. They see Selden by another candle, but are unable to catch him. Watson notices the figure of another man, but he likewise gets away.
Barrymore is upset when he finds out that they tried to capture Selden, but when an agreement is reached to allow Selden to escape out of the country, he is willing to repay the favor. He tells them about a mostly-burned letter asking Sir Charles to be at the gate at the time of his death. It was signed with the initials L.L. Dr. Mortimer tells Watson the next day that it could be Laura Lyons, Frankland’s daughter who lives in Coombe Tracey. When Watson goes to talk to her, she admits to writing the letter after Stapleton told her Sir Charles would be willing to help her, but says she never kept the appointment.
Frankland has just won two cases and invites Watson in, as his carriage passes by, to help him celebrate. Barrymore had previously told Watson that another man lived out on the moor besides Selden, and Frankland unwittingly confirms this, when he shows Watson through his telescope the figure of a boy carrying food off. Watson departs the house and goes off in that direction. He finds the dwelling where the unknown man has been staying, goes in, sees a message reporting on his own activities, and waits.
Holmes turns out to be the unknown man, keeping his location a secret so that Watson would not be tempted to come out and so he would be able to appear on the scene of action at the critical moment. Watson’s reports have been of much help to him, and he then tells his friend some of the information he’s uncovered-Stapleton is actually married to the woman passing as Miss Stapleton, and was also promising marriage to Laura Lyons to get her cooperation. As they bring their conversation to an end, they hear a scream, the sounds of a man being pursued by the hound.
They take off running and when they see the figure, they mistake it for Sir Henry. As their misery and regret grow, they realize it is actually Selden, dressed in the baronet’s old clothes (which had been given to Barrymore by way of further apology for distrusting him). Then Stapleton appears, and while he makes excuses for his presence, Holmes pretends to be returning to London.
Holmes and Watson return to Baskerville Hall, where over dinner, the detective realizes the similarity between Hugo Baskerville’s portrait and Stapleton. This provides the motive in the crime-with Sir Henry gone, Stapleton, the son of Rodger, could claim the Baskerville fortune. When they return to Mrs. Lyons’s place, they get her to admit to Stapleton’s role in the letter setup, and then they go to meet Lestrade.
Under the threat of advancing fog, Watson, Holmes, and Lestrade lie in wait outside the Merripit House, where Sir Henry has been dining. When the baronet leaves and sets off across the moor, the hound is soon let loose. It really is a terrible beast, but Holmes and Watson manage to shoot it before it can hurt Sir Henry, as well as discovering that its hellish appearance was acquired by means of phosphorus. They discover Mrs. Stapleton imprisoned in the bedroom, and when she is freed, she tells them of Stapleton’s hideout deep in Grimpen Mire. When they head out the next day to look for him, they are not able to find him, and he is presumed de

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Character List
Sherlock Holmes - The novel's protagonist. Holmes is the famed 221b Baker Street detective with a keen eye, hawked nose, and the trademark hat and pipe. Holmes is observation and intuition personified, and though he takes a bit of a back seat to Watson in this story, we always feel his presence. It takes his legendary powers to decipher the mystifying threads of the case.
Sherlock Holmes (In-Depth Analysis)
Dr. Watson - The novel's other protagonist and narrator. Dr. Watson is the stout sidekick to Holmes and longtime chronicler of the detective's adventures. In Hound, Watson tries his hand at Holmes' game, expressing his eagerness to please and impress the master by solving such a baffling case. As sidekick and apprentice to Holmes, Watson acts as a foil for Holmes' genius and as a stand-in for us, the awestruck audience.
Dr. Watson (In-Depth Analysis)
Sir Henry Baskerville - The late Sir Charles's nephew and closet living relative. Sir Henry is hale and hearty, described as "a small, alert, dark-eyed man about thirty years of age, very sturdily built." By the end of the story, Henry is as worn out and shell-shocked as his late uncle was before his death.
Sir Charles Baskerville - The head of the Baskerville estate. Sir Charles was a superstitious man, and terrified of the Baskerville curse and his waning health at the time of his death. Sir Charles was also a well-known philanthropist, and his plans to invest in the regions surrounding his estate make it essential that Sir Henry move to Baskerville Hall to continue his uncle's good works.
Sir Hugo Baskerville - A debaucherous and shadowy Baskerville ancestor, Sir Hugo is the picture of aristocratic excess, drinking and pursuing pleasures of the flesh until it killed him.
Mortimer - Family friend and doctor to the Baskervilles. Mortimer is a tall, thin man who dresses sloppily but is an all-around nice guy and the executor of Charles's estate. Mortimer is also a phrenology enthusiast, and he wishes and hopes to some day have the opportunity to study Holmes' head.
Mr. Jack Stapleton - A thin and bookish-looking entomologist and one-time schoolmaster, Stapleton chases butterflies and reveals his short temper only at key moments. A calm façade masks the scheming, manipulative villain that Holmes and Watson come to respect and fear.
Mr. Jack Stapleton (In-Depth Analysis)
Miss Stapleton - Allegedly Stapleton's sister, this dusky Latin beauty turns out to be his wife. Eager to prevent another death but terrified of her husband, she provides enigmatic warnings to Sir Henry and Watson.
Mr. John Barrymore and Mrs. Eliza Barrymore - The longtime domestic help of the Baskerville clan. Earnest and eager to please, the portly Mrs. Barrymore and her gaunt husband figure as a kind of red herring for the detectives, in league with their convict brother but ultimately no more suspicious than Sir Henry.
Laura Lyons - A local young woman. Laura Lyons is the beautiful brunette daughter of "Frankland the crank," the local litigator who disowned her when she married against his will. Subsequently abandoned by her husband, the credulous Laura turns to Mr. Stapleton and Charles for help.
The convict - A murderous villain, whose crimes defy description. The convict is nonetheless humanized by his association with the Barrymores. He has a rodent-like, haggardly appearance. His only wish is to flee his persecutors in Devonshire and escape to South America.
Mr. Frankland - Laura's father. Frankland is a man who likes to sue, a sort of comic relief with a chip on his shoulder about every infringement on what he sees as his rights. Villainized due to his one-time harsh treatment of Laura, Frankland is for the most part a laughable jester in the context of this story.
Context
Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh on May 22, 1859, the third of ten children. Early on, he evinced a talent for storytelling, wowing teachers and friends in Jesuit school with his yarns. His first publication came in 1879 with "The Mystery of Sasassa Valley" in the Chambers's Journal.
At the same time, Doyle pursued a career in medicine at Edinburgh University, going on to become a surgeon of some renown at Southsea, Portsmouth. While a medical student, he worked with Dr. Bell, who was exceptionally observant. Doyle thought he would write stories, said Doyle, "in which the hero would treat crime as Dr Bell treated disease and where science would take the place of chance."
In a series of stories—starting with A Study in Scarlet and The Sign of the Four—Doyle produced the memorable character, Sherlock Holmes, a detective who relied on facts and evidence rather than chance. In 1891, six "Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" showed up in Strand magazine, with six more appearing the next year. By 1893, The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, as the collected stories were now called, was a huge hit. The public mourned Holmes' death in "The Final Problem." Doyle changed his decision to pursue more serious literary endeavors in 1901, when finances and public pressure yielded The Hound of the Baskervilles. The same year that The Hound of the Baskervilles was published, Doyle produced a piece of propaganda on the Boer War, and the author was knighted for his efforts.
Doyle continued putting out Sherlock Holmes stories, including the collected Return of Sherlock Holmes. Later in life, when his son was killed in the first World War, Doyle devoted himself to his chosen faith, spiritualism. The notion of life after death and the idea of psychic abilities inform the character of Doyle's famous detective. Sherlock Holmes is a man who can see beyond appearances and link ostensibly unrelated facts into a coherent whole.
The Sherlock Holmes stories also owe a debt to Edgar Allan Poe, who is often credited with having created the modern detective tale. The Gold Bug (1843), The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841), The Mystery of Marie Rogêt (1842–1843), and The Purloined Letter (1844) are all, in a sense, precursors to Conan Doyle's detective stories.
Key Facts
full title • The Hound of the Baskervilles
author • Arthur Conan Doyle
type of work • Novel
genre • Mystery
language • English
time and place written • Returning from the Boer War in South Africa, Doyle wrote and published Hound of the Baskervilles in England in 1901.
date of first publication • 1901, serialized in The Strand; 1902, published by Newnes
publisher • George Newnes, Ltd.
narrator • Dr. Watson
climax • Holmes' secret plan comes to fruition when a guileless Sir Henry heads home across the moor, only to be attacked by the hound. Hindered by a thick fog and sheer fright, Holmes and Watson nonetheless shoot the beast and solve the mystery.
protagonist • Dr. Watson and Sherlock Holmes
antagonist • Jack Stapleton
setting (time) • 1889. Holmes notes that the date 1884, engraved on Dr. Mortimer's walking stick, is five years old.
setting (place) • The novel starts and ends in London, in Holmes' office at 221b Baker Street. Most of the rest of the novel takes place in Devonshire, at the imposing Baskerville Hall, the lonely moorlands, and the rundown Merripit House where Stapleton lives.
point of view • The mystery is told entirely from Watson's point of view, although the author regularly switches from straight narrative to diary to letters home.
falling action • Holmes explains the intricacies of the case; Sir Henry and Mortimer head off on vacation to heal Henry's nerves
tense • Modulates from past (as in Watson's narration of London events) to recent past (as in Watson's diary and letters)
foreshadowing • The deaths of some wild horses prefigure Stapleton's own death by drowning in the Grimpen mire. There is a sense in which all the clues serve as foreshadowing for later discoveries.
tone • At different times, the novel's tone is earnest, reverent (of Holmes), uncertain, and ominous.
themes • Good and evil; natural and supernatural; truth and fantasy; classism, hierarchy, and entitlement
motifs • Superstition and folk tales; disguised identities; the red herring
symbols • The moor (the mire); the hound
Plot Overview
The Hound of the Baskervilles opens with a mini mystery—Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson speculate on the identity of the owner of a cane that has been left in their office by an unknown visitor. Wowing Watson with his fabulous powers of observation, Holmes predicts the appearance of James Mortimer, owner of the found object and a convenient entrée into the baffling curse of the Baskervilles.
Entering the office and unveiling an 18th century manuscript, Mortimer recounts the myth of the lecherous Hugo Baskerville. Hugo captured and imprisoned a young country lass at his estate in Devonshire, only to fall victim to a marauding hound of hell as he pursued her along the lonesome moors late one night. Ever since, Mortimer reports, the Baskerville line has been plagued by a mysterious and supernatural black hound. The recent death of Sir Charles Baskerville has rekindled suspicions and fears. The next of kin, the duo finds out, has arrived in London to take up his post at Baskerville Hall, but he has already been intimidated by an anonymous note of warning and, strangely enough, the theft of a shoe.
Agreeing to take the case, Holmes and Watson quickly discover that Sir Henry Baskerville is being trailed in London by a mysterious bearded stranger, and they speculate as to whether the ghost be friend or foe. Holmes, however, announces that he is too busy in London to accompany Mortimer and Sir Henry to Devonshire to get to the bottom of the case, and he sends Dr. Watson to be his eyes and ears, insisting that he report back regularly.
Once in Devonshire, Watson discovers a state of emergency, with armed guards on the watch for an escaped convict roaming the moors. He meets potential suspects in Mr. Barrymore and Mrs. Barrymore, the domestic help, and Mr. Jack Stapleton and his sister Beryl, Baskerville neighbors.
A series of mysteries arrive in rapid succession: Barrymore is caught skulking around the mansion at night; Watson spies a lonely figure keeping watch over the moors; and the doctor hears what sounds like a dog's howling. Beryl Stapleton provides an enigmatic warning and Watson learns of a secret encounter between Sir Charles and a local woman named Laura Lyons on the night of his death.
Doing his best to unravel these threads of the mystery, Watson discovers that Barrymore's nightly jaunts are just his attempt to aid the escaped con, who turns out to be Mrs. Barrymore's brother. The doctor interviews Laura Lyons to assess her involvement, and discovers that the lonely figure surveying the moors is none other than Sherlock Holmes himself. It takes Holmes—hidden so as not to tip off the villain as to his involvement—to piece together the mystery.
Mr. Stapleton, Holmes has discovered, is actually in line to inherit the Baskerville fortune, and as such is the prime suspect. Laura Lyons was only a pawn in Stapleton's game, a Baskerville beneficiary whom Stapleton convinced to request and then miss a late night appointment with Sir Charles. Having lured Charles onto the moors, Stapleton released his ferocious pet pooch, which frightened the superstitious nobleman and caused a heart attack.
In a dramatic final scene, Holmes and Watson use the younger Baskerville as bait to catch Stapleton red-handed. After a late supper at the Stapletons', Sir Henry heads home across the moors, only to be waylaid by the enormous Stapleton pet. Despite a dense fog, Holmes and Watson are able to subdue the beast, and Stapleton, in his panicked flight from the scene, drowns in a marshland on the moors. Beryl Stapleton, who turns out to be Jack's harried wife and not his sister, is discovered tied up in his house, having refused to participate in his dastardly scheme.
Back in London, Holmes ties up the loose ends, announcing that the stolen shoe was used to give the hound Henry's scent, and that mysterious warning note came from Beryl Stapleton, whose philandering husband had denied their marriage so as to seduce and use Laura Lyons. Watson files the case closed.
Summary
Analysis of Major Characters
Sherlock Holmes
Sherlock Holmes is the ever-observant, world-renowned detective of 221b Baker Street. For all his assumed genius and intuition he is virtually omniscient in these stories, and Holmes becomes more accessible in the context of his constant posturing and pretension.
Holmes lets down his guard and admits of a fragile ego. When challenged at the beginning of the book—Mortimer calls him the second best crime solver in Europe and Holmes lets down his guard and asks who could possibly be the first. By and large, however, Holmes' ego is kept in check by a constant dose of adulation from Watson. Holmes regularly announces some absurd and unsubstantiated conclusion only to mock Watson by revealing the most obvious of clues. In the end, Holmes toys with his associates (and particularly Watson) at least as much as he flouts his enemies, equivocating, misleading, and making fools out of them only to up his own crime-solving cachet.
Dr. Watson
The good doctor plays the sidekick to Holmes' self-obsessed hero figure. Watson is a lowly apprentice and live-in friend, who spends most of the book trying to solve a difficult case in his master's stead. Always on hand to stroke Holmes' ego, Watson is nonetheless intent on proving his own mettle by applying Holmes' techniques.
Watson's never-ending adulation, which is presumably meant to mirror our own understanding of the legendary detective, comes through most forcefully at the end of the novel, when Holmes arrives at Devonshire. Holmes announces that he meant for Watson to think he was in London, and a pouty Watson reacts: "Then you use me, and yet you do not trust me!" Codependent throughout, Holmes and Watson fill each other's needs. Watson provides Holmes with an ego boost, and Holmes needs Watson's eyes and ears to inconspicuously gather clues. Watson is awestruck by Holmes' power of observation, and Watson feels more powerful by association.
Mr. Jack Stapleton
Intended to incarnate ill will and malice, Stapleton is conflated at various points with the lecherous libertine Hugo, whom he resembles. Stapleton is a black-hearted, violent villain hidden beneath a benign, bookish surface.
If Hugo operates as a kind of Doppelganger for his entomologist heir, then the convict offers an interesting parallel as well. Serving mainly as a red herring in the mysterious death of Sir Charles Baskerville, the convict also operates as a foil for the real culprit, Stapleton. Personifying "peculiar ferocity," "wonton brutality," and even dubious sanity, the convict is shown to be a pathetic, animalistic figure on whom the detectives ultimately take pity. Not so with Stapleton, a man with a "murderous heart," and a wolf in sheep's clothing.
Stapleton is a worthy adversary because of his birthright. If the convict is a simple murderer, he is also simply born, related by blood to the Baskerville's domestic help. Thus, the convict is part of a lower class than Holmes, and therefore is not a worthy adversary. Stapleton, however, is an intellectual, and when his evil side comes out, his hidden nobility comes out as well. Once Holmes is handling an educated and noble rival, he begins to take things much more seriously. In this sense, Stapleton's character adds to the strong classist themes imbedded in this book.

Chapter I: Mr. Sherlock Holmes
Our first glimpse of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson is in their home office at 221b Baker Street in London. Watson examines a mysterious cane left in the office by an unknown visitor, and Holmes sits with his back facing his friend. Holmes asks Watson what he makes of it, and Watson declares that his friend must "have eyes in the back of [his] head," since he saw what he was doing. Holmes admits that he saw Watson's reflection in the coffee service, proving to Watson and us that he is an astute observer
Watson offers up his theory as to the origin of the walking stick, declaring that the inscription, "To James Mortimer, M.R.C.S., from his friends of the C.C.H.," suggests an elderly doctor who was awarded the object after years of faithful service. Holmes encourages Watson's speculation, and the doctor continues, saying that the well-worn stick implies a country practitioner who walks about quite a bit. In addition, the C.C.H., he suggests, is probably the mark of "the something hunt," a local group to whom Mortimer provided some service.
Holmes congratulates Watson, and goes on to examine the cane himself as Watson basks in the glory of Holmes' compliment. However, Holmes quickly contradicts almost all of Watson's conclusions. Holmes suggests that while the owner is clearly a country practitioner, C.C.H. actually means Charing Cross Hospital. The cane was probably presented on the occasion of the man's retirement from the hospital, and only a young man would have retired from a successful city practice to move to a rural one. Holmes goes on to suggest that the man must possess a small spaniel, given the bite marks on the cane, and, he playfully announces, given the appearance of master and dog at their front door.
Mortimer arrives, introduces himself, and talks to the embarrassed Watson. An ardent phrenologist, Mortimer admires Holmes' skull and announces his desire to consult with "the second highest expert in Europe," a moniker which Holmes disputes.
Analysis
This first chapter is appropriately titled "Mr. Sherlock Holmes," as it introduces us to the great detective, while describing his abilities, and comparing him to Dr. Watson. Watson serves as Holmes' chronicler throughout the Sherlock Holmes series, but he does more than that. Watson is a foil for Holmes' brilliance—as Holmes himself says, "in noting your fallacies I was occasionally guided towards the truth." Dr. Watson gives Holmes the opportunity to show off, to disprove a plausible but erroneous set of conclusions by offering a superior talent for observation.
Conan Doyle also uses the character of Dr. Watson as a stand-in for us, Holmes' credulous readership, who connect with Watson both by virtue of his narration and to his common sense analysis of the situation. Holmes will always be able to trump Watson and us, providing more insight, analysis, and cleverness. Holmes always has an insider's edge. Conan Doyle often gives Holmes the advantage, because he provides him with more information than we get. When Holmes determines the size and breed of Mortimer's dog, for example, it is because he sees the animal outside the window. Later, when wrapping up the case, Holmes benefits from some secret research he has done on the side. Holmes is supposed to beat us to the punch in every instance; we are all supposed to have the same puzzle pieces, but only Holmes can fit them together. Conan Doyle cheats sometimes, letting Holmes look brilliant when in fact he is just better informed. Giving Holmes' privileged information, however, goes toward establishing the depth of Holmes' character. Holmes rub it in to Watson and us when he comes up with the correct conclusions, only to reveal that he has knowledge of the most obvious of clues. For example, he had seen the dog or hound outside of the office, which is how he knew its breed. Also, he had seen Watson in the silver coffee service, which is why he knew Watson was inspecting the cane, even though he was not facing him. Holmes is able to play these common observations off as the most brilliant of insights or even as part of a supernatural ability, showing that he is also conceited and egotistical.
Chapter II: The Curse of the Baskervilles
Summary
Mortimer presents Holmes and Watson with a manuscript which the always observant Holmes had already noticed and dated at 1730. The document, dated 1742, Baskerville Hall, reveals the myth of the Baskerville curse. At the time of the "Great Revolution," Mortimer reads, Hugo Baskerville lorded over the Baskerville mansion in Devonshire. Sex crazed and lecherous, the infamous Hugo became obsessed with a local yeoman's daughter, whom he kidnapped one day. Trapped in an upstairs room, hearing the raucous drinking and carousing going on downstairs, the girl escaped with the help of an ivy-covered wall. She fled across the expansive moorlands outside. Enraged at finding that his captive escaped, Hugo made a deal with the devil and released his hounds in pursuit of the young girl. Hugo's companions had followed their drunken friend across the moorland, and came upon the bodies of both Hugo and his girl. Hugo had just had his throat ripped out by "a foul thing, a great, black beast." Ever since, Mortimer reports, the supernatural hound has haunted the family. The hound just recently killed Sir Charles Baskerville, the latest inhabitant of Baskerville Hall.
Mortimer unfolds the Devon County Chronicle of May 14, reading about Sir Charles' philanthropy and the circumstances surrounding his death. Having remade his family fortune in South African colonial ventures, Charles returned two years ago to the family estate and gave extensively to the local population. The chronicle mentions the myth only to discount it, citing the testimony of Sir Charles' servants, Mr. Barrymore and Mrs. Barrymore, and that of Mortimer himself. Charles was found dead, the paper reports, at the site of his nightly walk down the so-called Yew Alley, which borders the haunted moorlands. Suspicious facts include Charles' apparent dawdling at the gate to the alley, and his footsteps down the alley itself, which indicated tiptoeing or running. But the paper points out Charles' poor health and the coroner's conclusion that the man died of a heart attack. The article goes on to insist that the next of kin, Sir Henry Baskerville, should come to take his uncle's post and continue his philanthropy.
Mortimer interrupts the account, however, to indicate that those are the publicly-known facts. Off the record, he admits that Sir Charles' poor health was a result of his fear of the family curse, and that he himself had suggested a sojourn in London to ease Sir Charles' nerves. Finally, Mortimer announces that the scene of the crime contained, in addition to Sir Charles' tiptoeing steps, "the footprints of a gigantic hound."
Analysis
The curse of the Baskervilles establishes many of the themes that will run throughout the rest book—the contrasting pairs of natural and supernatural, and myth and reality. Even as Doyle relates the deeds of a lecherous libertine—in the tradition of the Marquis de Sade—he invokes the Gothic tradition that is popular at the time. The ideas of an ancient curse, a hound of hell, and a kind of divine retribution all recall stories like those of Edgar Allan Poe, who imagined the most macabre situations and the most otherworldly explanations.
This chapter also presents several sources of information about the case—the manuscript, the paper, and Mortimer's reading of each one make it difficult to know which source to believe. An ancient curse, a modern piece of journalism, and a doctor's counsel all conspire to bewilder the detectives and the audience. Ultimately, however, the interplay of multiple perspectives only serves to emphasize the accuracy of our original source of all knowledge: Sherlock Holmes himself. Each source is set against the master's logical techniques for gathering and analyzing clues, both in form and in function.
The manuscript is notable both for its tone, which is radically different from the novel's no-nonsense, direct tone, and for its content, which points to the easy, but unrealistic, supernatural answers to a perplexing problem, rather than the more complicated scientific explanations. In the final analysis, Holmes is able to gleam the valid facts from what would otherwise be a shadowy, ancient myth. Dating the document at 1730, and analyzing the print and the paper, Holmes brings the elusive myth into his realm by using the careful deductive reasoning.
The other piece of evidence, the newspaper article, also only gets the story half right, and it concocts easy answers just like the manuscript. If the manuscript took a credulous, superstitious stance, then the paper makes the opposite mistake, refusing to acknowledge a set of mysterious data. Both types of evidence render an incomplete picture. In the end, only Holmes will come up with the full story, as he takes an ostensibly unfathomable set of clues and producing an objective truth from them.
Chapters III–IV
Summary
Chapter III: The Problem
Holmes, excited by such a mysterious case, asks for more details. As it turns out, the paw prints indicated that the dog had not approached the body. High hedges and two locked gates bordered the Yew Alley. Mortimer suggests that the death was the result of some supernatural evil, and he describes his own interviews with locals, who had seen a spectral hound roaming the moors. The superstitious Mortimer only came to Holmes to ask what to do with Sir Henry, the sole heir, set to arrive at Waterloo Station in one hour. He mentions another heir, Sir Charles's brother Roger, but points out that he is presumed dead in South America. As for Sir Henry, Mortimer is afraid should he set up shop in Devonshire, but he knows that the county is counting on continued Baskerville philanthropy.
Holmes promises to consider the matter, telling Mortimer to pick up Henry at the station and bring him to the office the next morning. The detective dismisses Mortimer and Watson and settles down to contemplate the situation, ruminating in his typical fashion over a bag of Bradley's strongest shag tobacco.
Later that night, Watson returns to find the office atmosphere thick with smoke: as Holmes suggests, "a concentrated atmosphere helps a concentration of thought." Holmes surprises Watson by guessing he has been at his club and unveils a map of the Baskerville moorlands. Holmes indicates his inclination to go through all the other possibilities before falling back on the supernatural one, and he speculates on the relevant questions. Given his infirmity and fear of the moor, Holmes wonders whom Charles was waiting for at the gate. The change in footprints, Holmes suggests, indicates running and not tiptoeing. Holmes also points out that Sir Charles was running in exactly the wrong direction—away from his house and any help he might find. The duo sets aside the case and Holmes takes up his violin.
Chapter IV: Sir Henry Baskerville
The next morning, Mortimer and the young Henry Baskerville arrive at 221b Baker Street. Though sturdy and weather-beaten, Sir Henry's expression showed that he was a gentleman. Just twenty-four hours in London, Sir Henry has already gotten involved in the mystery—he received an anonymous note of warning when he arrived at his hotel. Said the note: "As you value your life, or your reason, keep away from the moor." A few facts stand out: the address is on a plain envelope and printed in rough writing, and the note itself is composed with words cut out of a newspaper, except for the word moor. Holmes establishes that no one could have known where to reach Sir Henry, so the writer must be following him. Holmes quickly assesses the typeface and discerns that the words were cut out from yesterday's Times. He goes on to suggest that the culprit used a pair of short-bladed nail scissors, since the longer words are cut with two snips, and that the word moor was handwritten because the author could not find it in print.
Astounded, the others listen on intently. Holmes proceeds: the author must be an educated man, since only the well-educated read the Times. As such, the roughly written address suggests the writer was trying to disguise his or her handwriting, thus, the writer must have cursive that is recognizable. In addition, the author must have been in a hurry, since the words are glued carelessly onto the paper.
Dr. Mortimer, suddenly skeptical, questions Holmes' guess work, and the Holmes retorts that his methodology involves weighing probabilities and deciding on the likeliest solution. To prove it, he points out that the spluttered writing suggests a lack of ink, undoubtedly the result of a hotel pen, and not a private one. Holmes even asserts that an investigation of hotel garbage around Charing Cross, where the letter was postmarked, should yield the torn-up copy of the Times.
Announcing that he cannot glean anything else from the letter, the detective asks Henry whether anything else unusual has happened. Apparently, when Henry put a new pair out to be shined, his boot was lost or stolen. Dismissing the incident, Holmes agrees to fill Henry in on the curse of the Baskervilles. The group debates whether the warning suggests a friend eager to protect the baronet or an enemy intent on scaring him off. Henry announces his intention to go to Baskerville Hall. After inviting the detectives to lunch later that day, he leaves.
As soon as Sir Henry and Mortimer are out the door, Holmes leaps into action, intent on trailing the baronet to spot the letter writer whom Holmes suspects is trailing Sir Henry. Sure enough, the stakeout reveals a suspicious stranger in a cab, but the moment Watson spies his bushy black beard, the villain hurries off. The spy, Holmes suggests, is a worthy rival given his choice of a cab, a supremely well-suited getaway car. Holmes own performance, by contrast, was sub- par: he let the spy know that he was seen. The detective does announce that he has caught the cab's number, 2704, and directs Watson into a nearby messenger office. Once inside, Holmes greets the manager, a former client, and asks for the man's son Cartwright's help. Holmes instructs Cartwright to inspect the garbage of all the hotels in the Charing Cross region, in search of the mutilated Times. Meanwhile, he tells Watson, they will investigate cab number 2704 before meeting Sir Henry for lunch.
Analysis
In this section, Holmes attacks the case, applying his logical methods to the few clues that they have. His decision to exhaust all real-world options before considering the supernatural is typical of Holmes' style. He decides to rule out all possibilities before he considers that there are supernatural reasons. Ironically, the way that he analyzes clues, and the intuition he uses to gather evidence, is almost supernatural. He is almost superhuman in his keen powers of observation. The book has a very mysterious and dark undertone. These two chapters introduce us to some of the more puzzling clues in the book—the cut-and-paste warning letter, the stolen boot, and the mysterious stranger. In particular, the appearance of the mysterious stranger highlights one of the more prevalent themes in the story: disguised identity. When the detectives spot their man, they cannot help but wonder whether the black beard is a fake. The man's hurried escape ensures that for now, they will not figure out his identity, or whether the beard is a disguise. At the same time, identities and intentions get confused as the detectives wonder whether the stranger and the letter writer are the same person, and whether that person is a friend or an enemy. In this case, a mistaken or uncertain identity adds to the building tension and the tone of mystery in the novel.
Mistaken and disguised identities play a large role in the novel. The villain will continually disguise his own and others' identities. Just like an episode of Scooby Doo, the buildup to the final unmasking, or the revelation of true identities, creates much of the suspense in the story. The conflict between an inexplicable, mysterious, or supernatural identity and a more realistic and logical one, drives the plot of the novel. These two sides: practical and supernatural also represent the different characters' perspectives about Baskerville mystery. Holmes takes a more dogmatic, methodological approach, whereas Mortimer believes in the supernatural explanations.
These chapters also introduce us to the character of Cartwright. Cartwright offers an interesting glimpse into the mindset of upper middle class England during Holmes' time. As an educated person, Holmes expects not only respect, but also service from his social inferiors, and he usually gets it. Cartwright agrees to go rummaging about in the trash for Holmes. Later on, when Holmes and Watson handle an irate cab driver, a few shillings buys him off and ensures his total cooperation. The detectives' interaction with people of lower classes suggests that they do not respect those people whom they consider of a lower social or economic status.

Chapters V–VI
Summary
Chapter V: Three Broken Threads
Arriving at Sir Henry's hotel, Holmes examines the register. Tricking the clerk into thinking he knows the two names added since Sir Henry, he gleans information that excludes the two from suspicion. So, the detective concludes, the watcher has not settled in Henry's hotel, and as such, wants very much to see but not to be seen.
Heading upstairs, the pair runs into a flustered Sir Henry, enraged at the theft of a second boot, this time an old one. Denouncing the hotel staff, Sir Henry is surprised at Holmes' suggestion that the thefts may have something to do with the case.
At lunch, Holmes, Watson, Henry, and Mortimer discuss Sir Henry's decision to go to Devonshire, and Holmes assents given the extreme improbability of unmasking the stalker in crowded London. Holmes asks if there is not anyone up at Devonshire with a full black beard, and learns that the butler, Mr. Barrymore, fits that description. Intent on assessing whether Barrymore is at home or in London, Holmes sends a telegraph to Mr. Barrymore that will be delivered to his hand or else returned to sender. Barrymore, Mortimer relates, stood to inherit 500 pounds and a cushy, work-free setup upon Charles' death. Asking about other heirs and beneficiaries, Holmes learns that Mortimer himself received 1000 pounds, and Sir Henry got 740,000. The next in line, Mortimer states, is a couple named Desmond, distant cousins. Holmes declares that Sir Henry needs a more attentive bodyguard at Baskerville Hall than Mortimer. Citing previous commitments in town, Holmes declines to go himself and surprises everyone by suggesting that Watson accompany the baronet. Holmes insists that Watson keep him updated. While they are getting ready to leave for their office, they are surprised by a cry from Sir Henry. Diving under a cabinet, Henry discovers the first boot he lost (the new one) despite the fact that Mortimer searched the lunchroom earlier that afternoon. The waiter, when asked, denies any knowledge of who placed the boot under a cabinet.
Back at 221b Baker Street, the detectives try to piece together the threads of the case, but they soon hear by wire that Barrymore is indeed in Devonshire and that young Cartwright has not found the mutilated newspaper. However, the cab number proves useful—the cabman himself, irked at what he assumes is a complaint, arrives at the office. Holmes assures the man that he just contacted the cab company to get some information, and promises him half a sovereign if he cooperates. Holmes gets the man's name and asks about his mysterious morning fare. The cabman announces that the fare, calling himself Sherlock Holmes, was nondescript and ordered to him to do just what the detectives saw. Amused at his adversary's wit, Holmes is nonetheless annoyed that this third thread of the mystery has snapped.
Chapter VI: Baskerville Hall
On the morning of their departure, Holmes offers Watson some advice, suggesting that the doctor report facts only, and not conjectures. Holmes also announces that he has eliminated Desmond as a suspect, but that Watson should keep a close watch on all Henry's other intimates, including the Barrymores, Sir Henry's groom, the local farmers, Mrs. Stapleton and Mrs. Stapleton, and Mr. Frankland of Lafter Hall. Assuring that Watson has his gun and that Sir Henry will never go out alone, Holmes bids the group adieu.
On the trip, Watson chats with Mortimer and Henry, while the baronet admires the scenery of his birthplace. Soon, the group spots the fabled moorland, a gray, dream-like expanse. Observing Sir Henry's exultation, Watson decides that this New World traveler is indeed "of that long line of high-blooded, fiery, and masterful men," a good enough man to brave the Baskerville curse.
At the station, the group is met by a pair of gun-toting police officers, on guard for an escaped con, and by a set of Baskerville servants. The ride to the hall offers a beautiful scenic view, but always with the foreboding moor in the background. Asking about the armed guards, the group learns from the coachman that a dastardly criminal, Selden, the Notting Hill murderer, just recently escaped from prison. Sobered and silent, the party finally reaches Baskerville Hall.
As Barrymore and his wife introduce themselves and start taking down the baggage, Mortimer announces his intention to head home for supper. Once inside, Watson and Sir Henry learn of the Barrymores' intention to leave Henry's service as soon as he gets settled. Citing their sadness and fear at Charles' death, the Barrymores admit that they will never feel relaxed at Baskerville Hall. They also announce their intention to establish a business with the money inherited from Sir Charles.
Later on at dinner, Sir Henry says he understands his uncle's ill health and anxiety given the somber and scary aspect of much of the hall. Once in bed, Watson has trouble sleeping, and he hears a woman's sobbing.
Analysis
When Holmes and Watson arrive at Henry's hotel, Holmes surprises us by lying to the bellhop to gain information about the guests who have checked in since Sir Henry. Sherlock also practices deceit, and his trickery clues us in to a maneuver he will pull when he suggests that he cannot go to Devonshire to handle the case. In enlisting Watson, Holmes plays his own game of disguised identity. Watson acts as Holmes' secret ears and eyes, thus Holmes will be there, through the conduit of Watson.
This section also depicts an interesting tête-à-tête between Holmes and Watson. When Holmes sends Watson up to Devonshire, he insists that Watson report just the facts. Though Watson revels in the trust and responsibility his friend affords him, it seems clear that Holmes does not give Watson enough credit. Then again, Watson is used to a much more abusive relationship with Holmes, so his expectations for their interactions are low. In "The Disappearance of Lady Frances Carfax" and "The Solitary Cyclist," Holmes criticized his friend's abilities with an acid tongue.
The shift in perspective engendered by Watson's new found authority allows the novel to present a series of clues, without a series of hypotheses based on the clues. Learning the clues before Holmes gives us a chance to try our hand at solving the mystery. Doyle often achieves the same effect in other novels because Holmes has a tendency to keep tightlipped about his plans and theories. However, in this novel, Watson has the opportunity to stumble along with us, suggesting theories that may or may not be true.
Once Watson finally arrives in Devonshire, the so-called Notting Hill murderer pops up out of nowhere. In a novel that satires the easy answer by providing obvious clues—the manuscript, the county chronicle—here is the easiest answer of all, a murderer on the loose. At the same time, it seems jarring and improbable to count the convict among the suspects because of the structure of the book. First, there is the arduous setup of a curse and hound. Second, there are still over one hundred some-odd pages left in the book. The murderer on the loose is dangled in front of us as a red herring, an unlikely candidate who just might be the culprit after all.


Chapter VII: The Stapletons of Merripit House
Summary
The next morning, Watson and Sir Henry discuss the advantages of the Baskerville mansion, but Watson nonetheless mentions the crying he heard the previous evening. Sir Henry admits that he also heard the sobbing, but that he thought it was just a dream. Asking Barrymore about the incident, Watson notices that the butler gets flustered. He later learns that the man's suggestion that it could not have been his wife crying is a lie—Watson sees the woman's red and swollen eyes. Watson wonders at the butler's lie and at the woman's tears, speculating that perhaps Barrymore was the bearded stranger back in London. He decides to make sure Holmes' telegraph was actually delivered into the butler's own hands, so he takes a long walk out to the Grimpen postmaster. Questioning the postmaster's delivery boy, Watson learns that the telegram was actually delivered to Mrs. Barrymore, who claimed that her husband was busy upstairs. The boy did not see Barrymore himself. Confused by the back and forth of the investigation, Watson wishes Holmes was free to come to Devonshire.
Just then, a small stranger carrying a butterfly net comes up, calling Watson by his name. Mr. Stapleton of Merripit House introduces himself and excuses his casual country manners. Mortimer had pointed Watson out, and Stapleton only meant to accompany the doctor on his walk home. Stapleton asks after Sir Henry, and expresses his concern that the baronet should continue his uncle's good works. He also remarks at the silliness of the local superstition, at the same time suggesting that there must have been something to scare the weak-hearted uncle to death. Watson is surprised that Stapleton knew of Charles' condition, but the naturalist explains that Mortimer clued him in. The doctor is equally off-put by Stapleton's subsequent mention of Sherlock Holmes, but he quickly realizes that his friend's celebrity status has preceded him, and tells the inquisitive Stapleton that Holmes is occupied in London. Watson refuses to tell Stapleton anything specific about the case, and the naturalist lauds his discretion.
Walking alongside the moor, Stapleton points out the mystery and danger of the place, highlighting the great Grimpen mire, a stretch where a sort of quicksand can suck up either man or beast. Just then, the two spot a pony being swallowed up by the sand, even though, as Stapleton brags, the pony knows his way around well enough not to get into trouble. As Stapleton dissuades Watson from trying his luck, the two hear a low, sad moan that the locals suspect is the howling of the hound of the Baskervilles. Stapleton also points out some low, stone buildings along the moor: the residences of Neolithic man.
Suddenly, Stapleton goes bounding off after a butterfly, and Watson finds himself face to face with Miss Stapleton, who has walked up unnoticed. A stunning, dark beauty—the exact opposite of her brother—she cuts off Watson's introduction by telling him to go back to London and insisting that Watson say nothing to her brother.
Reappearing at Watson's side, Mr. Stapleton discovers that his sister had thought Watson was Sir Henry, and proper introductions are made. The three make their way to Merripit House, and Watson remarks that the spot seems a strange and melancholy place for the pair to choose.
Stapleton suggests that they get along fine, though his sister seems unconvinced. The naturalist tells Watson of a previous career as a schoolmaster up north, but insists that he prefers the opportunity the moors provide for collecting and inspecting insects. Watson leaves and Stapleton asks that he tell Sir Henry of his intention to pay a visit. On the way home, Watson encounters Miss Stapleton, who has run to catch up with him. She tells him to forget her warning, though Watson presses her for more details. Miss Stapleton tries to play off her outburst, claiming to be concerned about the curse and eager not to contradict her brother, who wants a charitable Baskerville in residence. Watson is more confused than ever.
Analysis
Our encounter with the Stapletons provides more questions than it answers. When Stapleton first meets Watson, he asks all kinds of questions: about Holmes, about the case, and about Sir Henry. On one hand, we are supposed to believe that the convict's behavior makes him look suspicious. He is a convicted killer who recently escaped. On the other hand, we are supposed to believe that Mr. Stapleton is trustworthy, and his actions make him appear to be a genuinely concerned person and an unsuspicious character.
In this chapter, we receive an introduction to Stapleton's past life as a schoolmaster, a piece of information that is not helpful until Holmes later checks up on it. This factoid about Stapleton justifies Holmes' later investigation, because it gives a shred of credence to what would otherwise seem a shot in the dark, or out of the blue explanation for the entire case. We wonder whether there is another reason for Doyle to mention Stapleton's past, other than to tie the plot together in the end.
Miss Stapleton, for her part, plays a shadowy role that only becomes clear upon a close reading. Once we realize that Beryl is not an Englishwoman but rather a Costa Rican, her actions and attitudes take on a whole new and uncomfortable layer of meaning. If Doyle's depiction of characters like Cartwright and the Barrymores evinces a certain classism, then Beryl Stapleton ends up in the role of an exoticized shaman, less like a familiar Cassandra than a sultry Latin Sheherezade. Doyle spends lots of time describing her dark beauty and her different way of speaking. Presumably, these facts are supposed to fit neatly into the rubric of clues that end up revealing who the Stapletons really are, and what this whole mystery means. At the same time, the Costa Rican Stapletons are intended to add that layer of mystery than only an exotic culture can offer. In both senses, Beryl's identity, and the way the novel treats her, reveals the different assumptions and stereotypes about ethnicity that colored Holmes' and Doyle's England.

Chapter VIII–IX
Summary
Chapter VIII: First Report of Dr. Watson
From this point on, Watson tells us, the story will be told as it was reported to Holmes himself: in letter form. Watson describes the loneliness and ancient feel of the moor. He goes on to relate the status of the escaped con, who has not been seen in two weeks. The relieved locals assume he has fled the area, since there is no food to sustain him on the moor.
Watson also alludes to a budding romantic relationship between Sir Henry and Miss Stapleton, whom he characterizes as exotic. Though Watson thinks her brother is a bit of a wet blanket by contrast, he nonetheless admits that he has hidden passions. He points out that Mr. Stapleton expresses disapproval of Sir Henry's interest in his sister.
Watson goes on to relate his meeting with another neighbor, Mr. Frankland of Lafter Hall. Mr. Frankland is a good-natured if quarrelsome man, who likes to sue people for the sake of suing. Watson notes his interest in astronomy and the telescope atop his house, often used for searching the moorlands for the escaped convict.
When Watson mentions that telegraph did not make it into Barrymore's hands, and he describes Sir Henry's questioning of his butler. Barrymore admits that he did not receive the wire from the postman himself, but insists that he was indeed at home that day. When Barrymore wonders what all the questions are about, Sir Henry appeases him by giving him a box of old clothes.
Watson reiterates his suspicions that Barrymore, whose wife he has once again been seen crying, is up to no good. Late one night, Watson is woken by the sound of footsteps outside his door. Peeking out, he sees Barrymore, silhouetted by a candle he is holding, skulking down the hall. As Watson follows him, he sees the butler go up to a window, and hold his candle aloft as if signaling to someone. Suddenly, he lets out an impatient groan and puts out the light. Watson makes it back to his room just in time, and later that night hears a key turning in a lock. Watson offers no speculation, leaving the theorizing to Holmes.
Chapter IX: (Second Report of Dr. Watson) The Light Upon the Moor
Having investigated the window that Barrymore used, Watson determines that this particular window has the best view of the moor. Watson suggests his suspicion of a love affair between Barrymore and a country lass, which would explain his wife's crying. Informing Sir Henry, who claims to have heard Barrymore's late night activity, Watson plots a late-night stakeout to catch Barrymore in the act.
Meanwhile, Henry's romance with Miss Stapleton hits a rough patch. Henry, going out to meet her, excuses Watson of his duties as bodyguard, lest the doctor turn into a chaperone as well. All the same, Watson trails the baronet and sees him walking with Miss Stapleton. As Henry bends in for a kiss, Stapleton arrives on the scene, yelling and carrying on inexplicably. As the Stapletons depart, Watson reveals himself to Henry, who wonders whether Stapleton might be crazy. He things himself a worthy match for Miss Stapleton, though he admits that on this occasion she refused to talk of love and only offered mysterious warnings. Later that day, Stapleton meets Sir Henry at home to apologize for his over- protective nature, and invites him to dinner next Friday.
Meanwhile, Watson and Henry's stakeout takes two nights of vigilance. On the second night, the two hear Barrymore and follow him to his window. Watson watches as Sir Henry confronts him. Shocked and bewildered, the butler tries to furnish an excuse, but Sir Henry insists on the truth. As Barrymore waffles, protesting, Watson goes to the window, figuring that another person out on the moor must be matching Barrymore's signal. Sure enough, a light shows up across the moor, but the butler refuses to talk, even at the expense of his job. Suddenly, Mrs. Barrymore arrives and explains everything. The light on the moor is a signal from the escaped convict, who turns out to be her brother. The Barrymores have been feeding and clothing the man so he does not starve out on the moor. Excusing the Barrymores, Henry and Watson determine to go out and capture the convict, so as to protect the community. On their way toward the light, though, the pair hears the loud moaning of a wolf and wonders whether they should continue their adventure. Watson even admits that the locals suspect the braying to be the call of the Hound of the Baskervilles.
Frightened but determined, Sir Henry insists they proceed. When the pair finally reaches the flickering candlelight, they spy a small crevice in some rocks where candle and convict are carefully hidden. The convict turns out to be all the two might have expected: haggard, unkempt, and animal-like. When Watson moves in for the kill, though, the man manages to escape. Just then, as they make their way home, Watson catches sight of a lone figure, silhouetted against the moor. But as suddenly as the tall, mysterious figure appeared, the figure is gone.
Analysis
There are several clues presented in Chapter VIII but little analysis: we learn of Stapleton's deep passions and Watson reiterates Miss Stapleton's exotic beauty. At the same time, the novel moves forward when the subplot of the escaped convict is addressed, and we are left to wonder how the convict figures into the broader mystery.
At the end of the chapter, when Watson leaves it to Holmes to figure things out, he is also leaving it to us to come up with our own theories. Instead of involving Holmes, who is could surely figure this all out quickly, Doyle lets Watson tell the story, thus leaving the clues disconnected and the legend intact. Though Watson seems pleased that his master entrusted him with so much responsibility, it will turn out that Holmes did not trust him at all, and the doctor will end up looking more like a fool.
In this section, we also meet Mr. Frankland, who serves as a much-needed dose of comic relief in an otherwise grim tale. He talks of the locals burning him in effigy or carrying him through the streets, depending on whether he has done them a service or a disservice on that particular day. At the same time, the character of Frankland satirizes the idea of entitlement and hierarchy, although it is not clear which side he is on. Frankland's gratuitous lawsuits, aimed at protecting what he sees as his rights, suggest that Doyle has a humorous take on this character's actions and opinions. But we are unsure whether Doyle is satirizing all entitlement, or a middle- and lower-class assumption of the rights of the nobility.
In the same vein, when we get a glimpse of Sir Henry's romantic life in Chapter IX, the themes of entitlement and hierarchy reappear. Talking with Watson about his failure to woo Miss Stapleton, Henry is utterly baffled that the non-noble Beryl and her brother would reject so good a marriage. In assuming his own suitability, Henry acts as if he is entitled to a marriage with a woman of a lower class. By doing so, he mimics the assumptions of his ancestor, Hugo, who started the curse when he ignored the entitlement—to dignity and to self- determination—of even the lowliest of lower classes.
Chapters X–XI
Summary
Chapter X: Extract from the Diary of Dr. Watson
Musing on the mysteries of the case, Watson dismisses the supernatural explanation but admits that his common sense offers no obvious solution. Where might a living and breathing hound hide by day, and who is the mysterious shadow out on the moor? Watson determines to find out what this man might know and whether he is the same person who provided the warning back in London.
Meanwhile, Sir Henry argues with Barrymore over the chase of his brother-in-law, Selden. Watson and Henry worry that the man is a public danger. Nonetheless, Barrymore assures them that Selden is just biding his time until a ship arrives for South America, and that he will not commit any more crimes. Barrymore's betters agree not to tell the police, and Barrymore thanks them by offering another clue. Apparently, Sir Charles went to the gate on the night he died to meet a woman, and Barrymore tells of his wife's discovery of a charred letter, signed L.L., requesting the late-night meeting.
The next day, Watson learns from Mortimer that Laura Lyons, daughter of "Frankland the crank," lives nearby in Coombe Tracey. Mortimer goes on to explain that Laura married an artist against her father's will and that both husband and father have since abandoned her. In the meantime, both Stapleton and Sir Charles have come to her aid by offering her alms.
As for the silhouette on the moor, Watson learns from Barrymore that Selden has seen him, too. He appears to be a gentleman, and he lives in one of the Neolithic huts along the moor, getting his food from a young boy.
Chapter XI: The Man on the Tor
Deciding that an informal visit might be the most productive, Watson leaves Sir Henry at home and heads for Coombe Tracey. At Laura Lyon's apartment, Watson meets the beautiful brunette and announces his interest in the matter of Sir Charles' death. Suspicious but finally cooperative, Laura admits that Sir Charles supported her financially, and that she wrote to him once or twice. But when Watson presses the issue, she claims to have had very little to do with him personally, and that it was Stapleton who told him of her situation.
Watson goes on to mention the burned letter, and Laura finally admits to having written it. The lateness of the hour and the strangeness of the location, she claims, resulted from her just having heard of Charles' imminent departure and her fear that a late-night meeting might look bad. When Watson asks what happened that night, Laura claims to have missed the appointment, but she refuses to say why. All she will disclose is the letter's content: an appeal for alms from Sir Charles to get her out of a bad marriage. Laura also adds that in the interim, she has gotten help from someone else.
Frustrated, Watson takes his leave, wondering what Laura might be holding back. Meanwhile, the doctor determines to search for the mysterious stranger on the moor. Watson is particularly determined because he wants to show up his master, Holmes. On his way home, Watson bumps into Mr. Frankland and agrees to have a glass of wine with him. As Frankland prattles on about his various legal matters, Watson realizes that the man has unwittingly spotted the stranger on the moor, thinking him to be the escaped convict. The man Frankland saw had a young boy bringing him food, just as Barrymore described the stranger's setup. Watson prods Frankland for more information, and just then, the man spots someone out on the moor and goes for his telescope. Sure enough, they see a young boy who is glancing behind him as if to make sure no one is watching.
Watson declines Frankland's offer for another drink and makes his way to where he saw the boy. Finding the stranger's hut, Watson decides to wait for his return. Examining the contents of the hut, the doctor discovers a note that says he has gone to Coombe Tracey and he realizes that he is also being followed. Finally, Watson hears footsteps outside and a sudden greeting.
Analysis
These chapters further explore Watson's character, and his desire to triumph over Holmes. For example, he says, "It would indeed be a triumph for me if I could run him to earth, where my master had failed," showing that he is perseverant, despite his ability to ever solve mysteries as well as Holmes. He represents the frustration we feel at not being able to solve the mystery without Holmes (or the author's) help. Watson tries to take on the mysterious stranger on the moor before Holmes finds him. The irony of the situation, of course, is that the stranger will turn out to be none other than Watson's master. Through no fault of his own, Holmes will humiliate the well-meaning Watson.
Watson stumbles on to Holmes with the help of Frankland, the story's cranky comic relief. In hindsight, the two men are an interesting and ill-informed pair. Frankland convinced he has spotted the convict and Watson is convinced he really knows what is going on. In the end, we realize that neither of them are correct, and Holmes has out-witted them again.
At the end of this section, Doyle uses a classic suspense technique: the cliffhanger. Regularly employed in virtually all genres, the cliffhanger comes from a tradition of serialization and is not exclusively a mystery story tactic. Back when fiction was often printed in segments—little bits of the story published each week or month in a periodical—the cliffhanger kept people coming back for more. The cliffhanger ensured that they would buy the next issue of the magazine, that they would read the next installment, and sometimes, that the whole of the story would later be bound and sold as a book. The Hound of the Baskervilles was serialized in the Strand magazine before it was ever published as a whole. The notion of a serialized story reminds us that many of the most famous authors simply wrote because they needed to make money. Writers like Charles Dickens would write hundreds and hundreds of pages, and keep the story going by adding a cliffhanger at the end of every chapter. Similarly, Doyle only wrote Hound because of the public appeal for more Sherlock Holmes adventures, and because Doyle was experiencing financial problems. As a result, Hound is one of the longest Sherlock Holmes adventures he ever wrote.
Chapters XII–XIII
Summary
Chapter XII: Death on the Moor
Watson quickly realizes that Holmes is the man greeting him. Watson wonders how the detective found the hut, and why was he hiding on the moor. Holmes explains that he saw Watson's brand of cigarette stubbed out near the hut. As for Holmes' presence in the hut, on the moor, in Devonshire, the detective explains that he hid so the enemies would not know of his direct involvement. Holmes lied to Watson, he says, so that no one would discover him, should Watson decide to compare notes or bring his master some food. Suddenly upset that his reports went to waste, Watson learns that Holmes actually had them forwarded and has kept them close at hand.
While recounting the day's visit to Coombe Tracey, Watson learns from Holmes that Laura and Mr. Stapleton share a close relationship and that Beryl, the woman masquerading as Stapleton's sister is actually his wife. Shocked at these revelations, the doubting Watson demands proof, and Holmes tells of his own investigation into Stapleton's past, and his career as a schoolmaster up north. Stapleton, it becomes clear, is the enemy they have been after, and he has been using his wife-cum-sister to get at Sir Henry and Laura Lyons. He seduced Lyons and used her to lure Charles onto the moor.
Watson and Holmes decide to visit Laura Lyons again, to tell her of Stapleton's ruse and hopefully, to shift her loyalties. Meanwhile, a sudden scream is heard on the moor, and, upon investigation, they discover the body of Sir Henry or what appears to be a body in his clothes. As it turns out, Barrymore delivered a bunch of old clothes to the convict. The hound had sniffed Henry's stolen boot back in London and had attacked the right clothes on the wrong man. Just then, Stapleton shows up, assuming that the dead man is Henry. When he discovers the truth, he stammers: "Who-who's this?" When Watson wonders why the naturalist assumed it was Sir Henry, Stapleton admits it was because he had asked him to come over. Holmes defuses the situation by suggesting that the convict, Selden, must have just fallen and broken his neck, and goes on to tell Stapleton he intends to go home tomorrow, since he is not interested in the myths that plague the particular case. Suspicious but reassured, Stapleton goes home and the detectives head for the Hall.
Chapter XIII: Fixing the Nets
Walking and talking on their way home, Watson and Holmes marvel at the self- control of their enemy, who held his tongue even after it became clear his hound had killed the wrong man. They wonder, now that the villain has seen Holmes, whether he will become more cautious or more desperate. Watson suggests that they arrest him at once, but Holmes reminds him that they have yet to establish the proof they need for a conviction.
Holmes has hope for tomorrow's interview with Lyons, but he also claims to have another plan in the works. He tells Watson not to tell Henry of Selden's death, and insists that he excuse himself from the dinner he and Henry were to attend at Stapleton's the next day.
After some light conversation with Sir Henry and the sad announcement of Selden's death to his sister, Holmes spies a portrait on the wall and learns that the thin cavalier in question is none other than Hugo Baskerville himself. Later that night, Holmes explains his interest to Watson, demonstrating the remarkable similarity between Hugo and Stapleton, thus establishing Stapleton's motive: as a Baskerville relative, Stapleton has designs on the inheritance.
The next morning, Holmes handles the removal of Selden's body and tells Sir Henry to keep his dinner appointment with Stapleton, excusing himself and Watson. Holmes tells the baronet that he and his friend are going to London, and though Sir Henry is understandably alarmed, Holmes tells him to trust him. He also insists that the baronet deliver the same message to Stapleton and that he walk home alone across the moor after dinner.
Later that day, at the train station, Holmes sends Cartwright back to London with instructions to send a wire from London, in Holmes' name, to Sir Henry. Holmes hears from another man, Lestrade, whom he intends to enlist later that night.
Meanwhile, Holmes and Watson head over to Laura Lyons' place, and Holmes tells her of Stapleton's secret marriage. Shocked and visibly upset, Laura demands proof, and Holmes produces a photo of husband and wife. Laura spills the beans: Stapleton had offered to marry her if she got a divorce, an endeavor that would require Sir Charles' assistance. The naturalist wrote Laura's letter to Charles and then insisted she miss the appointment, suggesting that he himself would pay the expenses. Stapleton even convinced Laura to keep quiet, telling her that she might get in trouble.
Analysis
After a long period of narration by Watson, the return of Holmes, like the unexpected appearance of the convict, can seem a bit jarring. Whereas Watson left things a bit looser, and more uncertain, after Holmes arrives, there is no more mystery left to solve. When he suddenly announces who the criminals are, we are left wondering how he solved the puzzle.
In this section, we learn that Stapleton is the culprit and that, in effect, all our speculations were useless since we did not have the key piece of information, Stapleton's identity and marital status. This allows the mystery to move much more quickly. Since Holmes knows what he is doing, how to get information out of people, and how to piece together the clues, the events follow one after the other and the denouement comes at an appropriate pace. If Watson's clue gathering allowed us a chance to participate, Holmes' tightlipped detection builds up the suspense even after the mystery's solved about what Holmes will do to catch the criminal. This section also recalls the themes of mistaken identity and entitlement. First, the convict is mistaken for Sir Henry because he is in his clothes, and as a result, the hound attacks him. Also, Holmes observes Stapleton's close resemblance to Hugo Baskerville. The villian's noble birth seems to make sense, because he feels like he is entitled to a large sum of money. Similarly, Beryl's rejection of Henry makes more sense, since she is not a lower-class woman rejecting a higher-class man, but rather, she is someone is already taken.
At the same time, this section reveals Holmes' own game of disguised identity. Holmes shows that he, a gentleman, lived like a convict. He looked for food and lived in a bare-bones dwelling. Even though Holmes also had clean collars and a willing helper-boy, the book still asks how Holmes could have managed in such dire conditions.
Chapters XIV–XV
Summary
Chapter XIV: The Hound of the Baskervilles
The three detectives approach Merripit House, and Holmes insists that they all tiptoe so they are not heard. Hidden behind some rocks, the group observes Sir Henry and Mr. Stapleton chatting over coffee. Sir Henry seems nervous, perhaps pondering the long walk home across the moor.
Just then, Stapleton gets up and heads outside, letting himself into a small outhouse where the hidden group hears some strange scuffling. Meanwhile, a thick fog starts to settle and spread across the moor, and the group gets nervous as the visibility gets worse and worse. Once the fog engulfs the path from Merripit to Baskerville Hall, the detectives will not be able to watch Henry's walk home, nor protect him when the hound attacks.
Once Henry finally gets going, the fog covers the path, and the detectives hear the hound before they see it. When it emerges from the mist, the hound turns out to be an immense, iridescent, fire-breathing beast, the very picture of the Baskerville myth. Stunned, the detectives only shoot one round of bullets as the hound nips at Henry's heels. But the shots do not kill the beast, and it leaps at Henry's throat. Fortunately, Holmes manages to unload five more rounds at just the right moment, and the hound collapses.
Examining the baronet, they discover no injuries. Getting a chance to finally examine the animal, the detectives determine it to be a bloodhound-mastiff mix, as big as a lion and covered with phosphorous to make it glow. Rushing back to the house, the detectives discover Mrs. Stapleton bound and gagged.
Waking up, Mrs. Stapleton makes sure Sir Henry is safe and the hound is dead, and then informs the detectives of her husband's hiding place in the Grimpen mire, the deadly marshland where he kept his hound. Deciding that the fog is too thick to pursue the villain through the treacherous mire, Holmes and Watson head back to Baskerville Hall with Sir Henry.
The next day, Mrs. Stapleton leads them through the mire, eager to capture her abusive husband. The Stapletons had placed sticks in the mire to mark the spots where it was safe to walk, and the detectives follow the path until they come upon an object, partially submerged. It turns out to be Sir Henry's black boot, which Stapleton used to set his hound on Henry's trail and then threw to the ground as he made his escape. As for Stapleton himself, his footprints are nowhere to be found beyond a certain point, and the detectives decide that the great Grimpen mire has engulfed him. When they reach his lair, they discover the place where the hound was kept, hidden away but still audible for miles around. The villain brought his hound to Merripit only that last day, so dangerous was the risk of discovery. The detectives also find the phosphorous used to make the beast glow—scary enough to frighten Sir Charles to death.
Chapter XV: A Retrospection
Back in London, Henry and Mortimer call on the detectives to get the full rundown of the confusing case. Holmes explains that Stapleton was actually the son of Roger Baskerville, Charles' younger brother who moved to South America and was presumed dead. Stapleton, or Sir Roger Baskerville, Jr., lived in South America and married Beryl Garçia of Costa Rica, the dark and lisping beauty masquerading as his sister. Having embezzled public money, Roger fled to England, changed his name, and established a school up north. When the school folded, Roger had to take off again, this time heading to Devonshire where he had heard of his stake in a large inheritance. Having made friends with Sir Charles, Roger heard of the myth of the hound and of Charles' bad heart.
To get the superstitious Charles out alone on the moor, Stapleton tried to enlist his wife, but she refused. He happened, however, to meet Laura Lyons, and he told her he would marry her if she got a divorce. Convincing her to get the necessary money from Charles, he made her miss the late-night appointment and unleashed his hound. Though Laura suspected Stapleton, she protected him out of love.
Once Henry arrived on the scene, Stapleton took his untrustworthy wife with him to London, where he trailed the baronet and she tried to warn him. Stapleton also made a point of stealing one of Henry's shoes to give his hound the baronet's scent. But the first boot he stole was brand new, not yet worn by Sir Henry and unsuitable for its intended purpose.
Holmes mentions that Mrs. Stapleton's letter smelled of perfume, and that the suggestion of a gentlewoman made him think right from the start of the Stapletons. Going on to investigate and ultimately establish Stapleton as the enemy, Holmes nonetheless needed proof, so he used Henry as bait to catch Stapleton red-handed. Holmes apologizes for using the baronet, but insists that it was necessary.
Mrs. Stapleton, for her part, both loved and feared her husband, and she was willing to warn Henry but not to reveal her husband's involvement. Stapleton himself encouraged the romance but could not help a jealous outburst the day he saw the two talking intimately.
On the night Henry came to dinner, Mrs. Stapleton realized her husband had his hound in the outhouse, and she confronted him. He revealed his relationship with Laura, and, when she reacted, he tied her up and gagged her. The only other loose end, as Holmes sees it, is just how Stapleton intended to claim the fortune. Though Holmes speculates that perhaps he would claim it from South America, he admits that he cannot predict behavior in the future. Henry heads off for a vacation with Mortimer to calm his nerves.
Analysis
When the detectives finally encounter the hound it is not enough that he is glowing and breathing fire, he has to emerge out of a thick fog. Doyle's whole Gothic apparatus, the themes of fantasy and the supernatural, the curse, the manuscript, the manor, all of it has led up to this one moment, when the hound leaps out of the hazy world of imagination and into the detectives' realm of reality. It is a key moment of climax. After the action has subsided, it is really only after they have killed the hound that the detectives get a good look at him. Once again, the detectives encounter a kind of disguised identity, discovering the artifice that made the hound look supernatural. The juxtaposition of the plot-driven climax of the hound's appearance and the thematic climax of its unmasking clearly reveals the ways in which Doyle uses a kind of Gothic, folk tale tradition in service of his story. In the end, mystery is exciting but closure is comforting.
In "A Retrospection," Holmes gives us all the comfort we need and a synopsis of the entire story. He ties up all the loose ends and even claims to have known right from the start that the Stapletons were the ones to blame. Interestingly, though, the wrap up is not that neat, with Henry headed off to calm his nerves on a vacation. Henry and Beryl do not get married and live happily ever after, and it is not even clear that Stapleton is actually dead. It has been suggested that Doyle considered bringing Stapleton back in a later story, but "what a man may do in the future is a hard question to answer."
Themes, Motifs, and Symbols
Themes
Natural and supernatural; truth and fantasy
As soon as Dr. Mortimer arrives to unveil the mysterious curse of the Baskervilles, Hound wrestles with questions of natural and supernatural occurrences. The doctor himself decides that the marauding hound in question is a supernatural beast, and all he wants to ask Sherlock Holmes is what to do with the next of kin.
From Holmes' point of view, every set of clues points toward a logical, real- world solution. Considering the supernatural explanation, Holmes decides to consider all other options before falling back on that one. Sherlock Holmes personifies the intellectual's faith in logic, and on examining facts to find the answers.
In this sense, the story takes on the Gothic tradition, a brand of storytelling that highlights the bizarre and unexplained. Doyles' mysterious hound, an ancient family curse, even the ominous Baskerville Hall all set up a Gothic- style mystery that, in the end, will fall victim to Holmes' powerful logic.
Doyle's own faith in spiritualism, a doctrine of life after death and psychic powers, might at first seem to contradict a Sherlockian belief in logical solutions and real world answers. Holmes is probably based more on Doyle's scientific training than his belief system. But the struggle for understanding, the search for a coherent conception of the world we live in, links the spiritualist Doyle with his fictional counterpart. Throughout the novel, Holmes is able to come up with far-flung if ultimately true accounts of the world around him, much as his author strove for understanding in fiction and in fact.
Classism and hierarchy
Hound's focus on the natural and supernatural spills over into other thematic territory—the rigid classism of Doyle's milieu. Well-to-do intellectual that he was, Doyle translated many of the assumptions of turn-of- the-century English society into his fiction. The natural and supernatural is one example.
Throughout the story, the superstitions of the shapeless mass of common folk- everyone attributes an unbending faith in the curse to the commoners-are denigrated and, often, dismissed. If Mortimer and Sir Henry have their doubts, it is the gullible common folk who take the curse seriously. In the end, when Watson's reportage and Holmes' insight have shed light on the situation, the curse and the commoners who believed it end up looking silly.
At the same time, Sir Henry's servants evince a kind of docility, and their brother the convict is reduced from dangerous murderer to pathetic rodent under Watson's gaze. Hound's classism is also enmeshed in questions of entitlement: who has the right to Baskerville Hall, to Holmes' attention, to our attention.
Motifs
Superstition and folk tales
The story opens with the folk tale of the Baskerville curse, presented on eighteenth century parchment. The reproduction of the curse, both in the novel and in Mortimer's reading, serves to start the story off with a bang-a shadowy folk tale, nothing if not mysterious. At the same time, it offers a nice contrast to Watson's straight-forward reporting, a style insisted upon by the master and one which will ultimately dispel any foolish belief in curses and hounds of hell.
Red Herring
A classic of the mystery/detective genre, the red herring throws us off the right trail. Much like the folk tale, it offers a too-easy answer to the question at hand, tempting us to take the bait and making fools of us if we do. In Hound, the largest red herring is the convict. After all, who better to pin a murder on than a convicted murderer. Barrymore's late-night mischief turns out to be innocent, and the convicted murderer turns out to not be involved in the mysterious deaths.
25. A Passage to India - E.M.Forster
Plot introduction
A Passage to India revolves around three characters: Dr. Aziz, his British friend Cyril Fielding, and Adela Quested. During a trip to the Marabar Caves, Adela accuses Aziz of attempting to rape her. Aziz's trial, and its run-up and aftermath, bring out all the racial tensions and prejudices between indigenous Indians and the British colonists who rule India. In A Passage to India, Forster employs his first-hand knowledge of India.
Plot summary
A young British schoolmistress, Adela Quested, and her elderly friend, Mrs. Moore, visit the fictional city of Chandrapore, British India. Adela Quested is there to marry Mrs. Moore's son, Ronny Heaslop, the city magistrate.
Meanwhile, Dr. Aziz, a young Muslim Indian physician, is dining with two of his Indian friends and conversing about whether it is possible to be friends with an Englishman. In the middle of the meal, a summons arrives from Major Callendar, Aziz's unpleasant superior at the hospital. Aziz hastens to Callendar's bungalow as ordered, but is delayed by a flat tire and difficulty in finding a tonga and the major has already left in a huff.
Disconsolate, Aziz walks down the road toward the train station. When he sees his favorite mosque, a rather ramshackle but beautiful structure, he enters on impulse. When he sees a strange Englishwoman there, he angrily yells at her not to profane this sacred place. The woman, however, turns out to be Mrs. Moore. Her respect for native customs (she took off her shoes on entering) instantly disarms Aziz, and the two chat and part friends.
Mrs. Moore returns to the British club down the road and relates her experience at the mosque. Ronny Heaslop initially thinks that she is talking about an Englishman, and becomes quite indignant when he learns the truth. He thinks she should have indicated by her tone that it was a "Mohammedan" who was in question. Adela, however, is intrigued.
Because the newcomers had expressed a desire to see Indians, Mr. Turton, the city tax collector, invites numerous Indian gentlemen to a party at his house. The party turns out to be an awkward business, thanks to the Indians' timidity and the Britons' bigotry, but Adela does meet Cyril Fielding, headmaster of Chandrapore's little government-run college for Indians. Fielding invites Adela and Mrs. Moore to a tea party with him and a Hindu professor named Narayan Godbole. On Adela's request, he extends his invitation to Dr. Aziz.
At Fielding's tea party, everyone has a good time conversing about India, and Fielding and Aziz even become great friends. Aziz buoyantly promises to take Mrs. Moore and Adela to see the Marabar Caves, a distant cave complex that everyone talks about but no one seems to actually visit. Then Ronny Heaslop shows up and rudely breaks up the party.
Now, Aziz's Marabar invitation was one of those casual promises that people often make and never intend to keep. But when he mistakenly believes that the women are really offended that he has not followed through, he arranges the outing at great expense to himself. Fielding and Godbole were supposed to accompany the little expedition, but they miss the train.
Aziz and the women begin to explore the caves. In the first cave, however, Mrs. Moore is overcome with claustrophobia, for the cave is dark and Aziz's retinue has followed her in. The press of people nearly smothers her. But worse than the claustrophobia is the echo. No matter what sound one makes, the echo is always "Boum." Disturbed by the echo, Mrs. Moore declines to continue exploring. So Adela and Aziz, accompanied by a single guide, a local man, climb on up the hill to the next cluster of caves.
As Aziz helps Adela up the hill, she innocently asks him whether he has more than one wife. Disconcerted by the bluntness of the remark, he ducks into a cave to compose himself. When he comes out, he finds the guide sitting alone outside the caves. The guide says Adela has gone into one of the caves by herself. Aziz looks for her in vain. Deciding she is lost, he angrily punches the guide, who runs away. Aziz looks around again and discovers Adela's field-glasses (binoculars) lying broken on the ground. He puts it in his pocket.
Then Aziz looks down the hill and sees Adela speaking to another young Englishwoman, Miss Derek, who has arrived with Fielding in a car. Aziz runs down the hill and greets Fielding effusively, but Miss Derek and Adela have already driven off without a word of explanation. Fielding, Mrs. Moore, and Aziz return to Chandrapore on the train.
Then the blow falls. At the train station, Dr. Aziz is arrested and charged with sexually assaulting Adela in a cave. It turns out that Adela had, while in the cave, received a shock similar to Mrs. Moore's. The echo had disconcerted her so much that she temporarily became unhinged. She ran frantically around the cave, fled down the hill, and finally sped off with the sympathetic Miss Derek. But the reader does not learn this until later. At the time, Adela mistakenly interprets her shock as an assault by Aziz, who personifies the India that has stripped her of her psychological innocence. She reports the alleged incident to the British authorities.
The run-up to Aziz's trial for attempted rape releases the racial tensions between the British and the Indians. The British colonists at Chandrapore are outraged by the alleged assault, but no one is really shocked. For at the back of all their minds is the conviction that all darker peoples lust after white women. Holding this attitude, they are understandably stunned when Fielding proclaims his belief in Aziz's innocence. Fielding is ostracized and condemned as a blood-traitor. But the Indians, who consider the rape allegation a fraud aimed at ruining their community's reputation, welcome him.
During the weeks before the trial, Mrs. Moore is unexpectedly apathetic and irritable. Her experience in the cave seems to have ruined her interest and faith in humanity. Although she curtly professes her belief in Aziz's innocence, she does nothing to help him. She insists on taking a ship back to England before the trial takes place. She dies during the voyage.
After an initial period of fever and weeping, Adela becomes confused as to Aziz's guilt. At the trial, she is asked point-blank whether Aziz sexually assaulted her. She asks for a moment to think before replying. She has a vision of the cave in that moment, and Aziz isn't there. With laudable honesty and bravery, she proclaims her mistake. The case is dismissed.
All the Anglo-Indians, who had eagerly rallied to her support, are shocked and infuriated by what they view as Adela's betrayal of the white race. Mrs. Turton shrieks insults at her, and Ronny Heaslop soon breaks off their engagement. Adela stays at the sympathetic Fielding's house until her passage on a boat to England is arranged. After explaining to Fielding that the echo was the cause of the whole business, she departs India, never to return.
Although he is free and vindicated, Aziz is angry and bitter that his friend, Fielding, would befriend Adela after she nearly ruined his life. The two men's friendship suffers in consequence, and Fielding soon departs for England. Aziz believes that he is leaving to marry Adela for her money, for which Fielding had dissuaded Aziz from suing her. Bitter at his friend's perceived betrayal, he vows to never again befriend a white person. Aziz moves to the Hindu-ruled state of Mau and begins a new life.
Two years later, Fielding returns to India and to Aziz. His wife is Stella, Mrs. Moore's daughter from a second marriage. Aziz, now the Rajah's chief physician, at first persists in his anger against his old friend. But in time, he comes to respect and love Fielding again. However, he does not give up his dream of a free and united India. In the novel's last sentences, he explains that he and Fielding cannot be friends, at least not until India is free of the British Raj. Even the earth and the sky seem to say, "Not yet."
Key to chapters
PART ONE: MOSQUE
1. Description of Chandrapore
2. Dr Aziz is called away from Hamidullah's house by Major Callendar; on arrival, he finds Callendar has left; Mrs Callendar and Mrs Lesley take his carriage; he walks to the mosque and meets Mrs Moore; they talk
3. Mrs Moore returns to the club and tells her son Ronny Heaslop and her travelling companion, Adela Quested, about her encounter; Ronny is bothered by it
4. The Collector invites Indians to a Bridge Party
5. The Bridge Party
6. Dr Panna Lal asks Dr Aziz why he didn't go
7. Mr Fielding; Dr Aziz invites Adela Quested and Mrs Moore to the Marabar Caves
8. Adela Quested and Ronny Heaslop
9. Mr Hamidullah, Dr Panna Lal, Fielding, Rafi Haq, Ram Chand, Syed Mohammed visit Dr Aziz at his home
10. The heat
11. Fielding visits Aziz at his house; they become friendly
PART TWO: CAVES
1. Description of caves
2. Fielding and Godbole miss the train
3. Mrs Moore and the caves
4. Dr Aziz and Miss Quested part ways
5. Loss of Miss Quested; arrest of Aziz
6. Fielding learns of this; he talks to Mr Turton
7. Fielding talks to Mr McBryde
8. Fielding talks to Hamidullah, Godbole, Aziz
9. The situation is discussed at the Club; Fielding resigns
10. Rest of the evening
11. Miss Quested starts to have doubts; Mrs Moore is dismissive
12. Mrs Moore leaves India
13. The trial; Quested withdraws her accusation
14. Dr Aziz and Dr Panna Lal
15. Fielding talks to Quested; they learn of Mrs Moore's death
16. Fielding talks to Aziz
17. Death of Mrs Moore; the cult of Esmiss Esmoor
18. Last conversation between Fielding and Quested; she leaves India
19. Aziz talks to Das
20. Aziz no longer trusts Fielding
21. Fielding travels back to England
PART THREE: TEMPLE
1. Professor Godbole
2. Dr Aziz's life while Fielding is gone
3. Fielding returns; Aziz realizes he never married Adela Quested
4. Aziz meets Ralph Moore
5. Aziz and Fielding talk about politics and India's future as a nation
Character list
Dr. Aziz
A young Muslim Indian who works at the British hospital in Chandrapore. He relies heavily on intuition over logic, and he is more emotional than his best friend, Fielding. He makes friends easily and seems quite garrulous at times. His chief drawback is an inability to view a situation without emotion, which Forster suggests is a typical Indian difficulty.

Cyril Fielding
The 45-year-old, unmarried British headmaster of the small government-run college for Indians. Fielding's logical Western mind cannot comprehend the muddle (or mystery) of India, but he is highly tolerant and respectful toward Indians. He befriends Dr. Aziz, but cultural and racial differences, and personal misunderstandings, separate them.

Adela Quested
A young British schoolmistress who is visiting India with the vague intention of marrying Ronny Heaslop. Intelligent, brave, honest, but slightly prudish, she is what Fielding calls a "prig." She arrives with the intention of seeing the real India. But after a frightening trip to the Marabar Caves, she falsely accuses Aziz of sexually assaulting her.

Mrs. Moore
The elderly, thoughtful mother of Ronny Heaslop. She is visiting Chandrapore to oversee her son's engagement to Adela Quested. She respects Indians and their customs, and the Indians in the novel appreciate her more than they do any other Briton. After undergoing an experience similar to Adela's, she becomes apathetic and bitter.

Ronny Heaslop
The British city magistrate of Chandrapore. Though not a bad man, he shares his Anglo-Indian colleagues' racist view of Indians. He breaks off his engagement to Adela after she retracts her accusation against Aziz. He considers it a betrayal of their race.

Professor Narayan Godbole
An elderly, courteous, contemplative Brahmin who views the world with equanimity. He remains totally aloof from the novel's conflicts.

Mr. Turton
The British city collector of Chandrapore. He does not hate Indians, for that would be to negate his life's work. Nevertheless, he is fiercely loyal to his race, reviles less bigoted people like Fielding, and regards natives with thinly veiled contempt.

Mrs. Turton
Mr. Turton's wife. Openly racist, snobbish, and rude toward Indians and those Anglo-Indians who are different, she screams at Adela in the courtroom when the latter retracts her accusation against Aziz.

Maj. Callendar
The British head doctor and Aziz's superior at the hospital. He is more openly racist than any other male character. Rumors circulate among Indians that Callendar actually tortured an injured Indian by putting pepper instead of antiseptic on his wounds.

Mr. McBryde
The British superintendent of police in Chandrapore. Like Mr. Turton, he considers dark-skinned races inferior to light-skinned ones. During Aziz's trial, he publicly asserts that it is a scientific fact that dark men lust after white women. Nevertheless, he is more tolerant of Indians than most Britons, and he is friendly with Fielding.

Miss Derek
An Englishwoman employed by a Hindu royal family. She frequently borrows their car -- and does not trouble to ask their permission or return it in time. She is too boisterous and easygoing for most of her compatriots' tastes. She has an affair with McBryde, though.

Nawab Bahadur
The chief Indian gentleman in Chandrapore. Wealthy (he owns a car) and generous (he lends his car), he is loyal to the British (he lends his car to Ronny Heaslop). But after the trial, he gives up his title of "nawab," which the British bestowed on him, in favor of plain "mister."

Hamidullah
Aziz's uncle and friend. Educated in law at Cambridge University, he declares at the beginning of the novel that it is easier to be friends with an Englishman in England than in India. Aziz comes to agree with him.

Amritrao
A prominent Indian lawyer from Calcutta, called in to defend Aziz. He is known for his strong anti-British sentiment. He takes the case for political reasons and becomes disgusted when the case evaporates in court.

Mahmoud Ali
A Muslim Indian barrister who openly hates the British.

Dr. Panna Lal
A low-born Hindu doctor and Aziz's rival at the hospital.

Ralph Moore
A mentally handicapped but discerning youth, the second son of Mrs. Moore.

Stella Moore
Mrs. Moore's daughter and Fielding's beautiful younger wife.
Themes
A Passage to India has four central themes: the difficulty of friendship between an Englishman and an Indian, the racism and oppression of the British who rule India, the "muddle" of Indian civilization and psychology, and the unity of all life. (See the concept of Brahman in Hinduism.)
• The novel's second chapter opens with a discussion between Mahmoud Ali and Hamidullah about whether an Indian can be friends with an Englishman. They conclude that such a friendship is virtually impossible, especially in India. This foreshadows the future split between Fielding and Aziz, whose cultural and national differences keep them apart, even though they like each other. For no member of an occupied race can really be friends with a member of the master race. Despite all rationale, the former will unavoidably resent the latter, and the latter will despise the former. As Aziz says, until India is free from the British, an Indian and an Englishman cannot be true friends.
• One of the most overt themes of the novel is the racist attitude of the British in India toward the native population, and the oppression of Indians that frequently results. The cruelty of Major Callendar, who boasts of torturing an injured Indian youth by putting pepper on his shattered face, is the most egregious example. But there are many others, from Mr. McBryde's supercilious views on Indians' lust for white women, to Mrs. Turton's vitriolic rantings, to Mr. Turton's arrogance, Ronny Heaslop's ignorance, and Miss Derek's scorn for her Indian employers. All the British (except Fielding) assume that Aziz is guilty before his trial, simply because he is an Indian. Yet even Fielding, who respects Indians more than any other white man, eventually comes to accept that British rule over India is the best thing for that country. As a result of British rudeness and arrogance, the Indians in the novel come to hate their foreign masters.
• In Part Two of A Passage to India, E.M. Forster frequently refers to India as a "muddle." This is not necessarily because he is racist, but because his logical Western mind cannot accept the extreme diversity of Indian religion, society, wildlife, and even architecture. Westerners, Forster explains, are always trying to categorize and label things, but India defies labelling. But the Indians quietly accept this diversity, not as a muddle but as a "mystery," like the Catholic Trinity or Sacraments, things ordained by God that must be accepted but cannot be explained in terms of reason. Additionally, Indians rely more on emotion and intuition in their judgments of people and events, whereas the British are always trying to make their opinions scientific and logical, like McBryde with his pseudo-scientific theory about the lusting after of dark men for white women. These differences in outlook and psychology, Forster implies, are the ultimate differences between the British and the Indians. For British minds, shackled by reason and race, cannot understand the Indian psyche.
• The Marabar Caves produce a pernicious echo, "Boum," to whatever noise one makes. To Mrs. Moore and Adela Quested, this echo symbolizes the Dharmic belief in the fundamental oneness of all things. But this "realization" unhinges their Western minds, shackled by logic. Mrs. Moore abandons all interest in spirituality and in human relationships, and Adela Quested becomes panicky and feverish. But was their realization true, and were their reactions excessive? For most of the novel, Forster with his Western outlook suggests that the Dharmic doctrine of oneness or "Om," (Boum is a parody) devalues us and everything we hold dear. But in Part Three, he seems to enter the Indian psyche and reveal to his readers that all things are one, perhaps, but they are not the same. Indians revel in this unity while retaining their differences. For are we not all members of the same species, made of atoms, containing the same organs, harboring the same basic needs and impulses? Yet our behavior and thoughts are highly individualized. Thus, Forster suggests that we accept our unity and our differences with equanimity, as Professor Narayan Godbole does. For oneness is not sameness.
Guide -2(SparkNotes)

Analysis of Major Characters
Dr. Aziz
Aziz seems to be a mess of extremes and contradictions, an embodiment of Forster’s notion of the “muddle” of India. Aziz is impetuous and flighty, changing opinions and preoccupations quickly and without warning, from one moment to the next. His moods swing back and forth between extremes, from childlike elation one minute to utter despair the next. Aziz even seems capable of shifting careers and talents, serving as both physician and poet during the course of A Passage to India. Aziz’s somewhat youthful qualities, as evidenced by a sense of humor that leans toward practical joking, are offset by his attitude of irony toward his English superiors.
Forster, though not blatantly stereotyping, encourages us to see many of Aziz’s characteristics as characteristics of Indians in general. Aziz, like many of his friends, dislikes blunt honesty and directness, preferring to communicate through confidences, feelings underlying words, and indirect speech. Aziz has a sense that much of morality is really social code. He therefore feels no moral compunction about visiting prostitutes or reading Fielding’s private mail—both because his intentions are good and because he knows he will not be caught. Instead of living by merely social codes, Aziz guides his action through a code that is nearly religious, such as we see in his extreme hospitality. Moreover, Aziz, like many of the other Indians, struggles with the problem of the English in India. On the one hand, he appreciates some of the modernizing influences that the West has brought to India; on the other, he feels that the presence of the English degrades and oppresses his people.
Despite his contradictions, Aziz is a genuinely affectionate character, and his affection is often based on intuited connections, as with Mrs. Moore and Fielding. Though Forster holds up Aziz’s capacity for imaginative sympathy as a good trait, we see that this imaginativeness can also betray Aziz. The deep offense Aziz feels toward Fielding in the aftermath of his trial stems from fiction and misinterpreted intuition. Aziz does not stop to evaluate facts, but rather follows his heart to the exclusion of all other methods—an approach that is sometimes wrong.
Many critics have contended that Forster portrays Aziz and many of the other Indian characters unflatteringly. Indeed, though the author is certainly sympathetic to the Indians, he does sometimes present them as incompetent, subservient, or childish. These somewhat valid critiques call into question the realism of Forster’s novel, but they do not, on the whole, corrupt his exploration of the possibility of friendly relations between Indians and Englishmen—arguably the central concern of the novel.
Cyril Fielding
Of all the characters in the novel, Fielding is clearly the most associated with Forster himself. Among the Englishmen in Chandrapore, Fielding is far and away most the successful at developing and sustaining relationships with native Indians. Though he is an educator, he is less comfortable in teacher-student interaction than he is in one-on-one conversation with another individual. This latter style serves as Forster’s model of liberal humanism—Forster and Fielding treat the world as a group of individuals who can connect through mutual respect, courtesy, and intelligence.
Fielding, in these viewpoints, presents the main threat to the mentality of the English in India. He educates Indians as individuals, engendering a movement of free thought that has the potential to destabilize English colonial power. Furthermore, Fielding has little patience for the racial categorization that is so central to the English grip on India. He honors his friendship with Aziz over any alliance with members of his own race—a reshuffling of allegiances that threatens the solidarity of the English. Finally, Fielding “travels light,” as he puts it: he does not believe in marriage, but favors friendship instead. As such, Fielding implicitly questions the domestic conventions upon which the Englishmen’s sense of “Englishness” is founded. Fielding refuses to sentimentalize domestic England or to venerate the role of the wife or mother—a far cry from the other Englishmen, who put Adela on a pedestal after the incident at the caves.
Fielding’s character changes in the aftermath of Aziz’s trial. He becomes jaded about the Indians as well as the English. His English sensibilities, such as his need for proportion and reason, become more prominent and begin to grate against Aziz’s Indian sensibilities. By the end of A Passage to India, Forster seems to identify with Fielding less. Whereas Aziz remains a likable, if flawed, character until the end of the novel, Fielding becomes less likable in his increasing identification and sameness with the English.
Adela Quested
Adela arrives in India with Mrs. Moore, and, fittingly, her character develops in parallel to Mrs. Moore’s. Adela, like the elder Englishwoman, is an individualist and an educated free thinker. These tendencies lead her, just as they lead Mrs. Moore, to question the standard behaviors of the English toward the Indians. Adela’s tendency to question standard practices with frankness makes her resistant to being labeled—and therefore resistant to marrying Ronny and being labeled a typical colonial English wife. Both Mrs. Moore and Adela hope to see the “real India” rather than an arranged tourist version. However, whereas Mrs. Moore’s desire is bolstered by a genuine interest in and affection for Indians, Adela appears to want to see the “real India” simply on intellectual grounds. She puts her mind to the task, but not her heart—and therefore never connects with Indians.
Adela’s experience at the Marabar Caves causes her to undergo a crisis of rationalism against spiritualism. While Adela’s character changes greatly in the several days after her alleged assault, her testimony at the trial represents a return of the old Adela, with the sole difference that she is plagued by doubt in a way she was not originally. Adela begins to sense that her assault, and the echo that haunts her afterward, are representative of something outside the scope of her normal rational comprehension. She is pained by her inability to articulate her experience. She finds she has no purpose in—nor love for—India, and suddenly fears that she is unable to love anyone. Adela is filled with the realization of the damage she has done to Aziz and others, yet she feels paralyzed, unable to remedy the wrongs she has done. Nonetheless, Adela selflessly endures her difficult fate after the trial—a course of action that wins her a friend in Fielding, who sees her as a brave woman rather than a traitor to her race.
Mrs. Moore
As a character, Mrs. Moore serves a double function in A Passage to India, operating on two different planes. She is initially a literal character, but as the novel progresses she becomes more a symbolic presence. On the literal level, Mrs. Moore is a good-hearted, religious, elderly woman with mystical leanings. The initial days of her visit to India are successful, as she connects with India and Indians on an intuitive level. Whereas Adela is overly cerebral, Mrs. Moore relies successfully on her heart to make connections during her visit. Furthermore, on the literal level, Mrs. Moore’s character has human limitations: her experience at Marabar renders her apathetic and even somewhat mean, to the degree that she simply leaves India without bothering to testify to Aziz’s innocence or to oversee Ronny and Adela’s wedding.
After her departure, however, Mrs. Moore exists largely on a symbolic level. Though she herself has human flaws, she comes to symbolize an ideally spiritual and race-blind openness that Forster sees as a solution to the problems in India. Mrs. Moore’s name becomes closely associated with Hinduism, especially the Hindu tenet of the oneness and unity of all living things. This symbolic side to Mrs. Moore might even make her the heroine of the novel, the only English person able to closely connect with the Hindu vision of unity. Nonetheless, Mrs. Moore’s literal actions—her sudden abandonment of India—make her less than heroic.
Ronny Heaslop
Ronny’s character does not change much over the course of the novel; instead, Forster’s emphasis is on the change that happened before the novel begins, when Ronny first arrived in India. Both Mrs. Moore and Adela note the difference between the Ronny they knew in England and the Ronny of British India. Forster uses Ronny’s character and the changes he has undergone as a sort of case study, an exploration of the restrictions that the English colonials’ herd mentality imposes on individual personalities. All of Ronny’s previously individual tastes are effectively dumbed down to meet group standards. He devalues his intelligence and learning from England in favor of the “wisdom” gained by years of experience in India. The open-minded attitude with which he has been brought up has been replaced by a suspicion of Indians. In short, Ronny’s tastes, opinions, and even his manner of speaking are no longer his own, but those of older, ostensibly wiser British Indian officials. This kind of group thinking is what ultimately causes Ronny to clash with both Adela and his mother, Mrs. Moore.
Nonetheless, Ronny is not the worst of the English in India, and Forster is somewhat sympathetic in his portrayal of him. Ronny’s ambition to rise in the ranks of British India has not completely destroyed his natural goodness, but merely perverted it. Ronny cares about his job and the Indians with whom he works, if only to the extent that they, in turn, reflect upon him. Forster presents Ronny’s failing as the fault of the colonial system, not his own.

Character List
Dr. Aziz - An intelligent, emotional Indian doctor in Chandrapore. Aziz attempts to make friends with Adela Quested, Mrs. Moore, and Cyril Fielding. Later, Adela falsely accuses Aziz of attempted rape after an expedition to the Marabar Caves, but the charges are dropped after Adela’s testimony at the trial. Aziz enjoys writing and reciting poetry. He has three children; his wife died several years before the beginning of the novel.
Dr. Aziz (In-Depth Analysis)
Cyril Fielding - The principal of the government college near Chandrapore. Fielding is an independent man who believes in educating the Indians to be individuals—a much more sympathetic attitude toward the native population than that held by most English in India. Fielding befriends Dr. Aziz, taking the doctor’s side against the rest of the English in Chandrapore when Aziz is accused of attempting to rape Adela Quested.
Cyril Fielding (In-Depth Analysis)
Miss Adela Quested - A young, intelligent, inquisitive, but somewhat repressed Englishwoman. Adela travels to India with Mrs. Moore in order to decide whether or not to marry Mrs. Moore’s son Ronny. Miss Quested begins with an openminded desire to get to know Indians and see the real India. Later, she falsely accuses Aziz of attempting to rape her in the Marabar Caves.
Adela Quested (In-Depth Analysis)
Mrs. Moore - An elderly Englishwoman who voyages to India with Adela Quested. Mrs. Moore wishes to see the country and hopes that Adela will marry her son Ronny. Mrs. Moore befriends Dr. Aziz, as she feels some spiritual connection with him. She has an unsettling experience with the bizarre echoes in the Marabar Caves, which cause her to feel a sense of dread, especially about human relationships. Mrs. Moore hurries back to England, and she dies at sea during the journey.
Mrs. Moore (In-Depth Analysis)
Ronny Heaslop - Mrs. Moore’s son, the magistrate at Chandrapore. Ronny, though well educated and open-minded at heart, has become prejudiced and intolerant of Indians ever since he moved to India—as is standard for most Englishmen serving there. Ronny is briefly engaged to Adela Quested, though he does not appear particularly passionate about her.
Ronny Heaslop (In-Depth Analysis)
Mr. Turton - The collector, the man who governs Chandrapore. Mr. Turton is officious and stern, though more tactful than his wife.
Mrs. Turton - Turton’s wife. In her interactions with Indians, Mrs. Turton embodies the novel’s stereotype of the snobby, rude, and prejudiced English colonial wife.
Mr. McBryde - The superintendent of police in Chandrapore, who has an elaborate theory that he claims explains the inferiority of dark skinned races to light skinned ones. McBryde, though condescending, actually shows more tolerance toward Indians than most English do. Not surprisingly, he and Fielding are friendly acquain-tances. McBryde himself stands up against the group mentality of the English at Chandrapore when he divorces his wife after having an affair with Miss Derek.
Major Callendar - The civil surgeon at Chandrapore, Dr. Aziz’s superior. Major Callendar is a boastful, cruel, intolerant, and ridiculous man.
Professor Godbole - A Brahman Hindu who teaches at Fielding’s college. Godbole is very spiritual and reluctant to become involved in human affairs.
Hamidullah - Dr. Aziz’s uncle and friend. Hamidullah, who was educated at Cambridge, believes that friendship between the English and Indians is more likely possible in England than in India. Hamidullah was a close friend of Fielding before Fielding and Aziz met.
Mahmoud Ali - A lawyer friend of Dr. Aziz who is deeply pessimistic about the English.
The Nawab Bahadur - The leading loyalist in Chandrapore. The Nawab Bahadur is wealthy, generous, and faithful to the English. After Aziz’s trial, however, he gives up his title in protest.
Dr. Panna Lal - A low born Hindu doctor and Aziz’s rival. Dr. Panna Lal intends to testify against Aziz at the trial, but he begs forgiveness after Aziz is set free.
Stella Moore - Mrs. Moore’s daughter from her second marriage. Stella marries Fielding toward the end of the novel.
Ralph Moore - Mrs. Moore’s son from her second marriage, a sensitive young man.
Miss Derek - A young Englishwoman who works for a wealthy Indian family and often steals their car. Miss Derek is easygoing and has a fine sense of humor, but many of the English at Chandrapore resent her, considering her presence unseemly.
Amritrao - The lawyer who defends Aziz at his trial. Amritrao is a highly anti British


Context
EDWARD MORGAN FORSTER WAS BORN into a comfortable London family in 1879. His father, an architect, died when Forster was very young, leaving the boy to be raised by his mother and great aunt. Forster proved to be a bright student, and he went on to attend Cambridge University, graduating in 1901. He spent much of the next decade traveling and living abroad, dividing his time between working as a journalist and writing short stories and novels.
Many of Forster’s observations and experiences from this time figure in his fiction, most notably A Room with a View (1908), which chronicles the experiences of a group of English people vacationing in Italy. Two years after A Room with a View, the novel Howards End (1910), in which Forster criticized the class divisions and prejudices of Edwardian England, solidified his reputation as a social critic and a master of incisively observational fiction.
Long before Forster first visited India, he had already gained a vivid picture of its people and places from a young Indian Muslim named Syed Ross Masood, whom Forster began tutoring in England starting in 1906. Forster and Masood became very close, and Masood introduced Forster to several of his Indian friends. Echoes of the friendship between the two can be seen in the characters of Fielding and Aziz in A Passage to India. By the time Forster first visited India, in 1912, the Englishman was well prepared for his travels throughout the country.
At the time of Forster’s visit, the British government had been officially ruling India since 1858, after the failed Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, in which Indians attempted to regain rule from the British East India Company. The East India Company, a privately owned trading concern, had been gaining financial and political power in India since the seventeenth century. By the time of Forster’s visit, Britain’s control over India was complete: English governors headed each province and were responsible to Parliament. Though England had promised the Indian people a role in government in exchange for their aid during World War I, India did not win independence until three decades later, in 1949.
Forster spent time with both Englishmen and Indians during his visit, and he quickly found he preferred the company of the latter. He was troubled by the racial oppression and deep cultural misunderstandings that divided the Indian people and the British colonists, or, as they are called in A Passage to India, Anglo-Indians. The prevailing attitude among the British in India was that the colonists were assuming the “white man’s burden”—novelist Rudyard Kipling’s phrase—of governing the country, because the Indians could not handle the responsibility themselves. Forster, a homosexual living in a society and era largely unsympathetic to his lifestyle, had long experienced prejudice and misunderstanding firsthand. It is no surprise, then, that Forster felt sympathetic toward the Indian side of the colonial argument. Indeed, Forster became a lifelong advocate for tolerance and understanding among people of different social classes, races, and backgrounds.
Forster began writing A Passage to India in 1913, just after his first visit to India. The novel was not revised and completed, however, until well after his second stay in India, in 1921, when he served as secretary to the Maharajah of Dewas State Senior. Published in 1924, A Passage to India examines the racial misunderstandings and cultural hypocrisies that characterized the complex interactions between Indians and the English toward the end of the British occupation of India.
Forster’s style is marked by his sympathy for his characters, his ability to see more than one side of an argument or story, and his fondness for simple, symbolic tales that neatly encapsulate large scale problems and conditions. These tendencies are all evident in A Passage to India, which was immediately acclaimed as Forster’s masterpiece upon its publication. It is a traditional social and political novel, unconcerned with the technical innovation of some of Forster’s modernist contemporaries such as Gertrude Stein or T.S. Eliot. A Passage to India is concerned, however, with representing the chaos of modern human experience through patterns of imagery and form. In this regard, Forster’s novel is similar to modernist works of the same time period, such as James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) and Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925).
A Passage to India was the last in a string of Forster’s novels in which his craft improved markedly with each new work. After the novel’s publication, however, Forster never again attained the level of craft or the depth of observation that characterized his early work. In his later life, he contented himself primarily with writing critical essays and lectures, most notably Aspects of the Novel (1927). In 1946, Forster accepted a fellowship at Cambridge, where he remained until his death in 1970.

Key Facts
TIME AND PLACE WRITTEN • 1912–1924; India, England
DATE OF FIRST PUBLICATION • 1924
NARRATOR • Forster uses an unnamed third-person narrator
POINT OF VIEW • The third-person narrator is omniscient, attuned both to the physical world and the inner states of the characters
TONE • Forster’s tone is often poetic and sometimes ironic or philosophical
TENSE • Immediate past
SETTING (TIME) • 1910s or 1920s
SETTING (PLACE) • India, specifically the cities of Chandrapore and Mau
PROTAGONIST • Dr. Aziz
MAJOR CONFLICT • Adela Quested accuses Dr. Aziz of attempting to sexually assault her in one of the Marabar Caves. Aziz suspects Fielding has plotted against him with the English.
RISING ACTION • Adela Quested and Mrs. Moore’s arrival in India; the women’s befriending of Aziz; Adela’s reluctant engagement to Ronny Heaslop; Ronny and the other Englishmen’s disapproval of the women’s interaction with Indians; Aziz’s organization of an outing to the Marabar Caves for his English friends; Adela’s and Mrs. Moore’s harrowing experiences in the caves; Adela’s public insinuation that Aziz assaulted her in the caves; the inflammation of racial tensions between the Indians and English in Chandrapore
CLIMAX • Aziz’s trial; Adela’s final admission that she is mistaken in her accusations and that Aziz is innocent; the courtroom’s eruption; Aziz’s release; the English community’s rejection of Adela
FALLING ACTION • Fielding’s conversations with Adela; Fielding and Aziz’s bickering over Aziz’s desire for reparations from Adela; Aziz’s assumption that Fielding has betrayed him and will marry Adela; Aziz’s increasingly anti-British sentiment; Fielding’s visit to Aziz with his new wife, Stella; Aziz’s befriending of Ralph and forgiveness of Fielding
THEMES • The difficulty of English-Indian friendship; the unity of all living things; the “muddle” of India; the negligence of British colonial government
MOTIFS • The echo; Eastern and Western architecture; Godbole’s song
SYMBOLS • The Marabar Caves; the green bird; the wasp
FORESHADOWING • Adela’s concern about breaking down during the trial; Fielding’s interest in Hinduism at the end of Part II

Part I, Chapters I–III
Summary: Chapter I
The city of Chandrapore, apart from the nearby Marabar Caves, is unextraordinary. The small, dirty city sits next to the River Ganges. Slightly inland from the city, near the railway station, lie the plain, sensible buildings of the British colonials. From the vantage point of these buildings, Chandrapore appears lovely because its unattractive parts are obscured by tropical vegetation. Newcomers, in order to lose their romantic image of the city, must be driven down to the city itself. The British buildings and the rest of Chandrapore are connected only by the Indian sky. The sky dominates the whole landscape, except for the Marabar Hills, which contain the only extraordinary part of Chandrapore—the Marabar Caves.
Summary: Chapter II
Dr. Aziz, an Indian Muslim, arrives late to his friend Hamidullah’s house, where Hamidullah and Mahmoud Ali are engaged in a debate over whether it is possible for an Indian and an Englishman to be friends. Hamidullah, who studied at Cambridge when he was young, contends that such a cross-cultural friendship is possible in England. The men agree that Englishmen in India all become insufferable within two years and all Englishwomen within six months. Aziz prefers to happily ignore the English.
Hamidullah takes Aziz behind the purdah (the screen that separates women from public interaction) to chat with his wife. Hamidullah’s wife scolds Aziz for not having remarried after the death of his wife. Aziz, however, is happy with his life, and sees his three children at his mother-in-law’s house often.
The men sit down to dinner along with Mohammed Latif, a poor, lazy relative of Hamidullah. Aziz recites poetry for the men, and they listen happily, feeling momentarily that India is one. Poetry in India is a public event.
During dinner, Aziz receives a summons from his superior, Major Callendar, the civil surgeon. Annoyed, Aziz bicycles away to Callendar’s bungalow. When Aziz’s bicycle tire deflates, he hires a tonga (a small pony-drawn vehicle) and finally arrives at Callendar’s house to find that the major has gone and left no message. Furthermore, as Aziz is speaking with a servant on the porch, Mrs. Callendar and her friend Mrs. Lesley rudely take Aziz’s hired tonga for their own use.
Aziz decides to walk home. On the way, he stops at his favorite mosque. To Aziz, the mosque, with its beautiful architecture, is a symbol of the truth of Islam and love. Aziz imagines building his own mosque with an inscription for his tomb addressing “those who have secretly understood my heart.”
Aziz suddenly notices an Englishwoman in the mosque and yells at her angrily, for she is trespassing in a holy place for Muslims. The woman is humble, however, and explains that she removed her shoes upon entering and that she realizes that God is present in the mosque. Aziz is impressed. The woman introduces herself as Mrs. Moore. She is visiting her son, Ronny Heaslop, the city magistrate.
Aziz and Mrs. Moore discover that they each have two sons and a daughter. Aziz senses Mrs. Moore’s friendly sympathy toward him—a sense confirmed when Mrs. Moore speaks candidly of her distaste for Mrs. Callendar, the major’s wife. Because Mrs. Moore is intuitively able to sense whom she likes and does not like, Aziz pronounces her an Oriental. Aziz escorts her to the door of the whites-only club.
Summary: Chapter III
Inside the club, Mrs. Moore joins her traveling companion, a young Englishwoman named Adela Quested. They sit in the billiard room in order to avoid the performance of the play Cousin Kate that is taking place in the next room. Mrs. Moore has escorted Adela from England at Ronny’s request; Adela and Ronny are presumably to become engaged. Mr. Turton, the collector of Chandrapore, enters and speaks highly of Ronny as the type of young man he likes.
The play lets out, and the billiard room begins to fill. Adela expresses her desire to see the “real India”—she wants something more than the stereotypical elephant ride most visitors get. Cyril Fielding, the principal of the local government college, passes through the room and suggests that Adela go see some Indians if she wants to see the “real India.” The club ladies, however, are aghast at such a suggestion, and they inform Adela that Indians are creepy and untrustworthy. Nonetheless, Mr. Turton, eager to please Adela, promises to round up some Indians for a “Bridge Party” so Adela can meet some of them.
On the way home, Mrs. Moore points out the mosque to Ronny and Adela and speaks of the nice young man she met there. Ronny assumes from Mrs. Moore’s tone that she is referring to an Englishman, and he becomes angry when he realizes she is speaking of an Indian. Back at the bungalow, after Adela goes to bed, Ronny quizzes his mother about her encounter. Using phrases he has picked up from his superiors, Ronny interprets each detail of Mrs. Moore’s encounter as scheming on Aziz’s part.
Ronny declares his intention to report Aziz to Major Callendar, but Mrs. Moore dissuades him. In turn, Ronny convinces his mother not to tell Adela about Dr. Aziz. Ronny worries that Adela will become too preoccupied with whether or not the English treat the Indians fairly. They finish talking, and Mrs. Moore goes to her bedroom. She notices a small wasp asleep on her coat hook, and croons to it kindly.
Analysis: Chapters I–III
Forster divides A Passage to India into three parts: “Mosque,” “Cave,” and “Temple.” Each part opens with a prefatory chapter that describes meaningful or symbolic parts of the landscape. Chapter I of “Mosque” describes the city of Chandrapore and the surrounding area. The chapter begins and ends by mentioning the extraordinary Marabar Caves, yet the narrative reveals no detailed information about the caves. Instead, Forster portrays the caves as a symbol, the meaning of which is a deep mystery. The caves and their indefinable presence hover around the narrative from the start.
The description of the Indian city of Chandrapore and the English colonial buildings nearby suggests the wary and condescending attitude the British hold toward the Indians—an attitude the subsequent chapters examine in detail. The description of the English buildings, which lie some distance from the city and sit on higher ground, implies that the English intend to remain disconnected from the Indians and that they feel the need to monitor Indian activity. The narrator explains that Chandrapore appears misleadingly tropical and beautiful from the vantage point of the English buildings, and that newcomers must be taken down into the city to overcome their illusions about its beauty. Forster’s description and commentary imply that the only two attitudes the English can have about India are romantic illusion or jaded disgust. On a broader level, his descriptions suggest the importance of all perspectives in the novel, the essential idea that what one sees depends on where—in both a physical and cultural sense—one stands.
The action of the novel opens in Chapter II with an argument between Indian friends about a topic that the novel explores in depth—the difficulty of friendship between an Englishman and an Indian. Though A Passage to India addresses the general political relationship between England and India, it approaches this issue on a personal, individual level. Mahmoud Ali and Hamidullah, rather than discuss the general issue of the subjection of India to British rule, focus on personal slights they themselves have suffered at the hands of individual English men and women. The conclusion the men reach after their argument reinforces this idea of connection and relation between personal and political matters: they conclude that an Indian can be friends with an Englishman only in England—implying that it is the structure of the colonial system that turns Englishmen disrespectful one at a time.
These tensions between the Indians and the English provide the main drama of the first few chapters. Forster generally portrays these interactions from the Indian point of view first—a perspective that invariably causes the incidents to reflect poorly on the English. At this point in the novel, the only offenses we see the English commit against the Indians are petty annoyances: Major Callendar interrupts Aziz’s dinner with a summons and then disappears without leaving a note for the doctor, and then Mrs. Callendar and Mrs. Lesley completely ignore Aziz and steal his tonga. The dialogues at the club in Chapter III, however, hint at the darker, more damaging elements of the condescension of the English, as we see that English women, especially, can be snobbish and even cruelly racist.
Whereas the English appear rigid in their insensitivity toward Indians, the Indians seem to fluctuate in their feelings toward the English. Mahmoud Ali feels cynical and resentful at first, but he is also nostalgic and accommodating. Aziz, depending on his mood, reacts to the English with either bitterness or amusement. Hamidullah, too, remembers certain English people with real love, but he also sees many of them as tragically comic. Though the three Indian men sometimes stereotype to the same degree as the English, all three generally take a more thoughtful, complex view of their relations with the English than the English do.
In addition to the broader sense of conflict between the Indians and the English, the opening chapters also focus on a tension surrounding the arrival of Adela Quested and Mrs. Moore in the city. Because the two women do not share their countrymen’s sentiments about the Indians, they naturally conflict with the others at the club, and particularly with Ronny. Adela’s remarks about her desire to see the “real India” prompt the club ladies to gather around her as though she were an amusing specimen or curiosity. Mrs. Moore, on the other hand, is quiet and introspective about her approach to Indian culture, arguing with Ronny about his viewpoints only when he draws her out. Even by this early point in the novel it appears that these tensions among Ronny’s, Adela’s, and Mrs. Moore’s respective approaches to India and Indians may affect the question of Ronny and Adela’s engagement, as well as Mrs. Moore’s role in the engagement.
The encounter between Aziz and Mrs. Moore in the mosque stands out as the only successful interaction between an Indian and an English person in these opening chapters. The meeting is notable because Aziz and Mrs. Moore ultimately treat each other as equals and speak frankly as friends. Aziz recognizes in Mrs. Moore an ability to intuit rather than categorize, complimenting as “Oriental” her ability to sense whom she likes and dislikes without the help of labels. From this interaction comes the title of the first part of the novel, “Mosque.” The correlation between the episode and the title suggests that Part I will focus on similar fleeting moments of friendship and attunement between the two cultures.
Beyond the verbal interaction that occurs between Aziz and Mrs. Moore, the encounter seems to include a religious or mystical undertone. The meeting takes place in a mosque, a place that is clearly holy to the Muslim Aziz, but also a place in which Mrs. Moore recognizes a clear divine presence. Before Mrs. Moore arrives, Aziz ponders the confluence of Islam and love in the structure of the mosque itself. Later, we see that Mrs. Moore recognizes that spirituality is based upon love for all other beings—hence her respect for even the tiny wasp sleeping in her room at the end of Chapter III. Mrs. Moore and Aziz appear drawn together not merely through good will, but through an inexplicable mystical affinity as well.

Part I, Chapters IV–VI
Summary: Chapter IV
Mr. Turton invites several Indian gentlemen to the proposed Bridge Party at the club. The Indians are surprised by the invitation. Mahmoud Ali suspects that the lieutenant general has ordered Turton to hold the party. The Nawab Bahadur, one of the most important Indian landowners in the area, announces that he appreciates the invitation and will attend. Some accuse the Nawab Bahadur of cheapening himself, but most Indians highly respect him and decide to attend also.
The narrator describes the room in which the Indian gentlemen meet. Outside remain the lowlier Indians who received no invitation. The narrator describes Mr. Grayford and Mr. Sorley, missionaries on the outskirts of the city. Mr. Sorley feels that all men go to heaven, but not lowly wasps, bacteria, or mud, because something must be excluded to leave enough for those who are included. Mr. Sorley’s Hindu friends disagree, however, as they feel that God includes every living thing.
Summary: Chapter V
At the Bridge Party, the Indian guests stand idly at one side of the tennis lawn while the English stand at the other. The clear segregation dismays Adela Quested and Mrs. Moore. Ronny and Mrs. Turton disdainfully discuss the Indians’ clothing, which mixes Eastern and Western styles. Several Englishwomen arrive and discuss the earlier production of Cousin Kate. Mrs. Moore is surprised to note how intolerant and conventional Ronny’s opinions have become.
Mr. Turton arrives, cynically noting to himself that each guest has come for a self-serving reason. Reluctantly, Mrs. Turton takes Adela and Mrs. Moore to visit a group of Indian ladies. Mrs. Turton addresses the Indian women in crude Urdu, and then asks Mrs. Moore and Adela if they are satisfied. One of the Indian women speaks, and Mrs. Turton is surprised to learn that the women know English. Mrs. Moore and Adela unsuccessfully try to draw the Indian women out into more substantial conversation. Mrs. Moore asks one of them, Mrs. Bhattacharya, if she and Adela can visit her at home. Mrs. Bhattacharya agrees to host the Englishwomen the upcoming Thursday, and her husband promises to send his carriage for them.
Mr. Fielding, who is also at the party, socializes freely with the Indians and even eats on the Indian side of the lawn. He is pleased to learn that Adela and Mrs. Moore have been friendly to the Indians. Fielding locates Adela and invites her and Mrs. Moore to tea. Adela complains about how rude the English are acting toward their guests, but Fielding suspects her complaints are intellectual, not emotional. Adela mentions Dr. Aziz, and Fielding promises to invite the doctor to tea as well.
That evening, Adela and Ronny dine with the McBrydes and Miss Derek. The dinner consists of standard English fare. During the meal, Adela begins to dread the prospect of a drab married life among the insensitive English. She fears she will never get to know the true spirit of India.
After Adela goes to bed, Ronny asks his mother about Adela. Mrs. Moore explains that Adela feels that the English are unpleasant to the Indians. Ronny is dismissive, explaining that the English are in India to keep the peace, not to be pleasant. Mrs. Moore disagrees, saying it is the duty of the English to be pleasant to Indians, as God demands love for all men. Mrs. Moore instantly regrets mentioning God; ever since she has arrived in India, her God has seemed less powerful than ever before.
Summary: Chapter VI
The morning after Aziz’s encounter with Mrs. Moore, Major Callendar scolds the doctor for failing to report promptly to his summons, and he does not ask for Aziz’s side of the story.
Aziz and a colleague, Dr. Panna Lal, decide to attend the Bridge Party together. However, the party falls on the anniversary of Aziz’s wife’s death, so he decides not to attend. Aziz mourns his loving wife for part of the day and then borrows Hamidullah’s pony to practice polo on the town green. An English soldier is also practicing polo, and he and Aziz play together briefly as comrades.
Dr. Lal, returning from the Bridge Party, runs into Aziz. Lal reports that Aziz’s absence was noticed, and he insists on knowing why Aziz did not attend. Aziz, considering Lal ill mannered to ask such a question, reacts defiantly. By the time Aziz reaches home, though, he has begun to worry that the English will punish him for not attending. His mood improves when he opens Fielding’s invitation to tea. Aziz is pleased that Fielding has politely ignored the fact that Aziz forgot to respond to an invitation to tea at Fielding’s last month.
Analysis: Chapters IV–VI
The wildly unsuccessful Bridge Party stands as the clear focus of this portion of the novel. Though the event is meant to be a time of orchestrated interaction, a “bridge” between the two cultures, the only result is heightened suspicion on both sides. Indians such as Mahmoud Ali suspect that Turton is throwing the party not in good faith, but on orders from a superior. Turton himself suspects that the Indians attend only for self-serving reasons. The party remains segregated, with the English hosts regarding their guests as one large group that can be split down only into Indian “types,” not into individuals.
Though the Bridge Party clearly furthers our idea that the English as a whole act condescendingly toward the Indians, Forster also uses the party to examine the minute differences among English attitudes. Mrs. Turton, for instance, represents the attitude of most Englishwomen in India: she is flatly bigoted and rude, regarding herself as superior to all Indians in seemingly every respect. The Englishmen at the party, however, appear less malicious in their attitudes. Mr. Turton and Ronny Heaslop are representative of this type: through their work they have come to know some Indians as individuals, and though somewhat condescending, they are far less overtly malicious than the Englishwomen.
Cyril Fielding, who made a brief appearance in Chapter III, appears here to be the model of successful interaction between the English and Indians. Unlike the other English, Fielding does not recognize racial distinctions between himself and the native population. Instead, he interacts with Indians on an individual-to-individual basis. Moreover, he senses that he has found like-minded souls in Adela Quested and Mrs. Moore. Of the two, Fielding is more closely akin to Mrs. Moore than Adela: Fielding and Mrs. Moore are unself-conscious in their friendship with Indians, whereas Adela consciously and actively seeks out this cross-cultural friendship as an interesting and enriching experience.
Forster fleshes out the character of Adela Quested significantly in these chapters. As part of this effort, the author uses Fielding as a sort of moral barometer, a character whose judgments we can trust. In this regard, we can see Fielding’s judgment of Adela—that she appears to object to the English treatment of the Indians on an intellectual, rather than emotional level—as Forster’s own judgment. Adela, perhaps because of this intellectual, unemotional curiosity about Indian culture, conducts her interactions in India in a negative sense rather than a positive one—attempting to not act like the other English rather than attempting to actively identify with Indians. Adela always acts as an individual, rejecting the herd mentality of the other couples at the English club. While the other English try to re-create England in India through meals of sardines and plays like Cousin Kate, Adela hopes to experience the “real India,” the “spirit” of India. Yet we sense that Adela’s idea of this “real India” is vague and somewhat romanticized, especially when compared to Mrs. Moore’s genuine interaction with Aziz or Fielding’s enthusiastic willingness to partake in Indian culture.
The primary Indian protagonist, Aziz, develops in these chapters as significantly distinct from English expectations of Indian character. While the English pride themselves on dividing the Indian character into “types” with identifiable characteristics, Aziz appears to be a man of indefinable flux. Forster distinguishes Aziz’s various guises—outcast, poet, medical student, religious worshiper—and his ability to slip easily among them without warning. Aziz’s whims fluctuate in a way similar to his overall character. In Chapter VI we see Aziz shift from mood to mood in the space of minutes: first he wants to attend the Bridge Party, then he is disgusted with the party, then he despairingly mourns his dead wife, then he seeks companionship and exercise. Ironically, one of Aziz’s only constant qualities is a characteristically English quality: an insistence upon good breeding and polite manners. This quality makes Aziz slightly prejudiced—it leads him to reject his friendship with Dr. Lal—yet it also allows him to disregard racial boundaries, as when he feels automatically affectionate toward Fielding because of the Englishman’s politeness.
Furthermore, Forster uses these chapters to begin to develop one of the major ideas he explores in A Passage to India—the inclusiveness of the Hindu religion, especially as compared to Christianity. Forster portrays Hinduism as a religion that encompasses all, that sees God in everything, even the smallest bacterium. He specifically aligns Mrs. Moore with Hinduism in the earlier scene from Chapter III in which she treats a small wasp kindly. The image of the wasp reappears in Chapter IV as the wasp that the Hindus assume will be part of heaven—a point on which the Christian missionaries Mr. Grayford and Mr. Sorley disagree. Mrs. Moore is a Christian, but in Chapter VI we see that she has begun to call her Christianity into question during her stay in India. Whereas God earlier was the greatest thought in Mrs. Moore’s head, now the woman appears to sense something beyond that thought, perhaps the more inclusive and all-encompassing worldview of Hinduism.

Part I, Chapters IX–XI
Summary: Chapter IX
Three days after the tea party, Aziz falls slightly ill. Exaggerating his illness, he remains in bed and contemplates a brief trip to a brothel in Calcutta to lift his spirits. Aziz takes a rather clinical view of his occasional need for women. Aziz knows that Major Callendar and others would be scandalized by his plans to visit the brothel. Nonetheless, Aziz does not mind breaking social codes—he simply tries not to get caught. Aziz suddenly notices that flies cover the inside of his room, so he summons his servant, Hassan, to dispose of them. Hassan is inattentive.
Hamidullah, Syed Mohammed, Haq, and Syed Mohammed’s young nephew, Rafi, all crowd into Aziz’s room to inquire about his health. Rafi gossips that Professor Godbole has also fallen ill. The visitors briefly toss around a suspicion that Mr. Fielding poisoned the men at his tea. Syed Mohammed and Haq discuss how all disease comes from Hindus. Aziz recites an irrelevant poem by an Urdu poet. Though not all of the men comprehend poetry, they are happily silent and for a moment feel that India is one. Hamidullah silently contemplates the nationalist meeting he must attend later in the day, which will gather Indians from many different sects. Hamidullah sadly considers that the group never achieves anything constructive and that the meetings are only peaceful when someone is denouncing the English.
The visitors announce their intent to leave, but they remain seated. Dr. Panna Lal arrives, under Major Callendar’s orders, to check on Aziz. Dr. Lal immediately realizes that Aziz is not very ill, but he decides to cover for Aziz anyway, in hopes that Aziz will return the favor one day. After some prodding, Dr. Lal reluctantly reports that Professor Godbole’s condition is not serious, which prompts the men to scold Rafi for spreading rumors. Dr. Lal’s troublesome driver, Ram Chand, insults Rafi’s uncle, Syed Mohammed, and a loud argument breaks out.
At this moment, Fielding walks into the room. Aziz would normally be humiliated at Fielding’s seeing his poor, dirty home, but Aziz is distracted. Concerned about showing hospitality to Rafi, Aziz murmurs to the boy and tries to make him comfortable again after his scolding. Meanwhile, the men begin to question Fielding about his belief in God, the declining morality of the West, and what he thinks about England’s position in India. Fielding enjoys being candid with the men. He explains that he is not certain that England is justified in holding India and that he is in India personally to hold a job. The men are shocked by the plainness of Fielding’s honesty. Fielding, feeling disappointed by his first visit to Aziz, leads the other men out of Aziz’s sickroom.
Summary: Chapter X
Fielding and the others emerge from Aziz’s home and feel oppressed by the weather and the general atmosphere outside. Several animals nearby make noises—the inarticulate animal world seems always more present in India than in England. The other men mount their carriages and go home, rather than back to work. All over India, people retreat inside as the hot season approaches.
Summary: Chapter XI
Fielding stands on the porch of Aziz’s house, but no servant brings his horse, for Aziz has secretly ordered the servants not to. Aziz calls Fielding back inside. Though Aziz self-pityingly draws Fielding’s attention to the shabbiness of his home, Fielding is matter-of-fact in response. Aziz directs Fielding to a photograph that he keeps in a drawer, which is of his late wife. Flattered, Fielding thanks Aziz for the honor of seeing the picture. Aziz tells Fielding he likes him because he values men acting as brothers. They agree that the English government has tried to improve India through institutions, when it should have begun with friendship.
Fielding suddenly feels depressed, feeling that he cannot match Aziz’s fervent emotions. Fielding wishes he had personal details to share with Aziz. Fielding momentarily feels as though he will not be intimate with anyone, but will travel through life, calm and isolated.
Aziz questions Fielding about his family, but the Englishman has none. Aziz playfully suggests that Fielding should marry Adela. Fielding replies vehemently that Adela is a “prig” who tries to learn about India as though it were a class at school. He adds that Adela has become engaged to Ronny Heaslop. Aziz is relieved, assuming that this means he will not have to host a trip to the Marabar Caves after all, as it would be unseemly to escort an engaged woman. Aziz agrees with Fielding’s distaste for Adela, but Aziz objects to her lack of beauty rather than her attitude.
Aziz suddenly feels protective of Fielding and warns him to be less frank with other Indians. Aziz worries that Fielding might lose his job, but the Englishman reassures him that it wouldn’t matter. Fielding explains that he believes in “traveling light,” which is why he refuses to marry. Fielding leaves, and Aziz drifts off to sleep, dreaming happily.
Analysis: Chapters IX–XI
Though Forster clearly portrays the Indians in the novel more sympathetically than the British, he occasionally shows how the Indians sometimes succumb to racism in the same ways that the British do. Thus far, we have been acquainted only with Aziz and his similarly well educated, upper-class friends. In Chapter IX we meet several other acquaintances of Aziz, Muslims, some of whom are not as enlightened or privileged as Aziz himself. These men stir up an atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion, and racism equal to the behavior of the British: they first suspect Fielding of poisoning the non-English guests at his tea party, and then they blatantly disparage the Hindu religion. Forster satirizes their sentiments in the same way that he satirizes the British, showing how their racism leads them into contradiction. The Indians uphold the ill Hindu professor Godbole against the English Fielding, but then disparage Hindus in general as disease-ridden. The men, in their clamor about the alleged dirtiness of Hindus, resemble the English who fear infection or contamination from the Indians.
Similarly, though Forster satirizes English behavior toward Indians, he seems to remain somewhat pro-Empire in his views. Forster’s logic does not argue against England’s presence in India, but rather suggests that England might better serve India by improving personal relations with Indians. We can see Forster’s fundamentally pro-Empire stance in his implication in these chapters that India, without British presence, would dissolve into fighting among its many sects. Hamidullah is Forster’s mouthpiece for this sentiment in Chapter IX: as the other men disparage Hindus and bicker among themselves, Hamidullah contemplates the lack of national feeling in India. He notes that Indians from different sects—like those at his political meetings—unite only against the British. Forster portrays a united India as only a fleeting illusion, brought on by Aziz’s recital of nostalgic poetry that imagines a single, Islamic India.
Furthermore, Forster implies that political action and energy may be impossible in India because the country is so oppressed by natural forces. In Chapter X, he shows that animals have as much voice as humans in India: their chaotic and meaningless noises sometimes dominate, blocking out rational human discussion. Additionally, the approaching onset of the hot season prevents action and sends people scurrying into the shelter of their homes. Looking closely, we see that each of the three parts of A Passage to India corresponds to one of the three seasons in India: Part I corresponds to the cold season, Part II to the hot season, and Part III to the wet season. As we see later, the oppressiveness of the hot season directly relates to the divisive and inflammatory plot events of Part II. Chapter X foreshadows the hot season and the turmoil, argumentativeness, and inexplicable sadness to come.
The majority of Part I has focused on developing the characters of Adela Quested and Mrs. Moore in relation to Aziz, to Ronny, and to their new surroundings. In these final sections of Part I, attention shifts somewhat to the character of Fielding, especially in terms of his relation to Aziz and to the rest of the English in Chandrapore. The development of Fielding’s relations begins to constitute a second plotline throughout the rest of the novel, moving in parallel to plot developments involving Adela and Mrs. Moore.
Though Fielding is generally on friendly terms with the English in Chandrapore, Fielding’s character presents a threat to the Englishmen because of his stance as an educator of individuals. The English fear that Indians become less obedient when they are better educated; indeed, the new ideas that Fielding fosters have the potential to undermine Britain’s rule over India. The English see Fielding as suspect because his model of education works through interaction, sitting down with individuals and exchanging ideas. This model treats Indians as separate, distinct individuals, rather than a homogeneous and easily stereotyped group. As such, it places even Fielding himself—a representative Englishman—in a position of vulnerability. While other English people present themselves as knowledgeable and dominant, Fielding lets himself play the role of learner as well as teacher.
As Fielding grows apart from the Englishmen at the club, he grows closer to Aziz. In these chapters we see Forster set up these two characters as the potentially successful answer to the question of whether an Indian can ever be friends with an Englishman. More than merely a cross-cultural bridge, the friendship between Fielding and Aziz seems to develop a homosocial undertone as well. Aspects of heterosexual interaction dominate Chapter XI—the photograph of Aziz’s wife, Aziz’s happy thoughts of visiting prostitutes, the men’s discussion of Adela’s qualities—but these marks of heterosexuality function as a means to develop and cement a homosocial (but not implicitly homosexual) connection between Fielding and Aziz. These heterosexual tokens, conversations, and thoughts are passed between the two men and serve primarily to strengthen their relationship—though women are the focus of the men’s conversation, women are effectively excluded, reduced to simply a medium of exchange between the men. Furthermore, we may interpret Fielding’s sentiments against marriage in Chapter XI as Forster’s own. The author implies that marriage shuts people off from educationally and emotionally fruitful relationships, such as the one that we see growing between Fielding and Aziz.

Part I, Chapters VII–VIII
Summary: Chapter VII
In every remark [Aziz] found a meaning, but not always the true meaning, and his life though vivid was largely a dream.
(See Important Quotations Explained)
Fielding’s many worldly experiences keep him from being insensitive toward Indians like the rest of the English are. The English mildly distrust Fielding, partly out of suspicion of his efforts to educate Indians as individuals. Fielding also makes offhand comments that distress the English, such as his remark that “whites” are actually “pinko-grey.” Still, Fielding manages to remain friendly with the men at the English club while also socializing with Indians.
Aziz arrives at Fielding’s for tea as Fielding is dressing. Though the two men have never met, they treat each other informally, which delights Aziz. Fielding breaks the collar stud for his shirt, but Aziz quickly removes his own and gives it to Fielding. The relations between the two men sour only briefly when Aziz misinterprets Fielding’s dismissive comment about a new school of painting to be dismissive of Aziz himself.
Aziz is disappointed when Mrs. Moore and Adela arrive, as their presence upsets the intimacy of his conversation with Fielding. The party continues to be informal, though, even with the women present. Aziz feels comfortable addressing the women as he would address men, as Mrs. Moore is so elderly and Adela so plain looking.
The ladies are disappointed and confused because the Bhattacharyas never sent their carriage this morning as promised. Adela pronounces it a “mystery,” but Mrs. Moore disagrees—mysteries she likes, but this is a “muddle.” Fielding pronounces all India a muddle. Aziz denounces the rudeness of the Hindu Bhattacharyas and invites the women to his own house. To Aziz’s horror, Adela takes his invitation literally and asks for his address. Aziz is ashamed of his shabby residence and distracts Adela with commentary on Indian architecture. Fielding knows that Aziz has some historical facts wrong, but Fielding does not correct Aziz as other Englishmen would have. At the moment Fielding recognizes “truth of mood” over truth of fact.
The last of Fielding’s guests, the Hindu professor Godbole, arrives. Aziz asks Adela if she plans to settle in India, to which Adela spontaneously responds that she cannot. Adela then realizes that, in making this admission, she has essentially told strangers that she will not marry Ronny before she has even told Ronny so herself. Adela’s words fluster Mrs. Moore. Fielding then takes Mrs. Moore on a tour of the college grounds.
Adela again mentions the prospect of visiting Aziz’s house, but Aziz invites her to the Marabar Caves instead. Aziz attempts to describe the caves, but it becomes clear that Aziz has never seen them. Godbole has been to the caves, but he does not adequately describe why they are extraordinary; in fact, Aziz senses that Godbole is holding back information. Suddenly, Ronny arrives to take Adela and his mother to a polo match at the club. Ronny ignores the Indians. Aziz becomes excitable and overly intimate in reaction to Ronny’s rude interruption. Fielding reappears, and Ronny privately scolds him for leaving Adela alone with Indians.
Before the ladies leave, Godbole sings an odd-sounding Hindu song in which the singer asks God to come to her, but God refuses.
In her ignorance, [Adela] regarded [Aziz] as “India,” and never surmised that his outlook was limited and his method inaccurate, and that no one is India.
(See Important Quotations Explained)
Summary: Chapter VIII
Driving away from Fielding’s, Adela expresses annoyance at Ronny’s rudeness. Adela mentions Aziz’s invitation to the Marabar Caves, but Ronny immediately forbids the women to go. Ronny mentions Aziz’s unpinned collar as an example of Indians’ general inattention to detail. Mrs. Moore, tired of bickering, asks to be dropped off at home. Adela feels suddenly ashamed of telling those at the tea party of her intention to leave India.
After the polo match at the club, Adela quietly tells Ronny that she has decided not to marry him. Ronny is disappointed, but he agrees to remain friends with her. Adela sees a green bird and asks Ronny what type of bird it is. Ronny does not know, which confirms Adela’s feeling that nothing in India is identifiable. Ronny and Adela begin to feel lonely and useless in their surroundings; they suddenly feel they share more similarities than differences.
The Nawab Bahadur happens by and offers Ronny and Adela a ride in his automobile. Riding in the back seat, the two feel dwarfed by the dark night and expansive landscape surrounding them. Their hands accidentally touch, and they feel an animalistic thrill. The car mysteriously breaks down on a road outside the city. They all climb out and determine that the car must have hit something, probably a hyena. After a short while, Miss Derek drives past them offers them a ride back to Chandrapore.
Driving back to Chandrapore, Miss Derek jokes about her employer, an Indian noblewoman. Ronny and Adela feel drawn together by their shared distaste for Miss Derek’s crass manner and for the Nawab’s polite but long-winded speeches. When Adela and Ronny arrive back at the bungalow, Adela says that she would like to marry Ronny after all. He agrees. Adela, however, immediately feels a sense of disappointment, believing she will now be labeled the same as all the other married Englishwomen in India. They go inside and tell Mrs. Moore of their plans. Adela begins to feel more pleasant, joining Ronny in poking fun at the Nawab Bahadur. When Ronny and Adela tell Mrs. Moore of the strange car accident, the older woman shivers and claims that the car must have hit a “ghost.”
Meanwhile, down in the city of Chandrapore, the Nawab Bahadur describes the accident to others. He explains that it took place near the site where he ran over and killed a drunken man nine years ago. The Nawab Bahadur insists that the dead man caused the accident that occurred this evening. Aziz is skeptical, however, and feels that Indians should not be so superstitious.
Analysis: Chapters VII–VIII
Though Fielding himself disregards racial boundaries, his tea party does not quite develop into a successful version of the Bridge Party. Aziz and Adela both appear overexcited during the tea, while Mrs. Moore and Professor Godbole remain withdrawn from the others’ chatter. The sudden cultural interaction carries Adela away and convinces her, almost subconsciously, that she cannot remain in India and become a wife at the club—prompting the spontaneous admission that upsets Mrs. Moore. The tea sours when Ronny arrives, though his rudeness appears only to bring out tensions that already existed. Aziz becomes grotesquely overfamiliar, Adela blames herself and Ronny, Fielding becomes annoyed, and Mrs. Moore becomes spiritually drained by Godbole’s Hindu song.
The tea party is further disturbed by a disparity between what Forster calls “truth of fact” and “truth of mood.” Thus far in A Passage to India, we have seen that the Indian characters often tend to say one thing when they mean another. Forster presents this tendency as problematic only for the English, among whom words are taken at face value. Indians appear skilled at identifying the undertones—the unspoken elements—of a conversation. Indeed, we see that Aziz recognizes from tone, rather than words, that Godbole is withholding information from his description of the Marabar Caves. Moreover, when Aziz invites Mrs. Moore and Adela to his house, the “mood” of his question—his sincere feeling of goodwill and hospitality to the Englishwomen—is all that Aziz means to convey. Adela, however, takes the invitation literally and asks for Aziz’s address. The misunderstanding makes Aziz uncomfortable, as he is in fact embarrassed about the appearance of his home. Fielding, too, reacts negatively to Adela’s literal-mindedness. This disconnect between cultural uses of language is an important division between the English and Indians in the novel.
Forster explores another divide between the English and Indian cultures through the idea of naming or labeling. If the English in the novel always say exactly what they mean, they also are quick to attach names or labels to objects and people around them. When Adela and Ronny sit together at the club, Adela wonders aloud what kind of bird sits on the tree above them. Ronny does not know, which depresses Adela even more; meanwhile, the narrator notes that nothing is identifiable in India, as things disappear or change before one can name them. The British in India realize that with the ability to name or label things comes power. It is for this reason that Fielding’s remark that “whites” are really “pinko-grey” upsets the men at the club: by deflating labels like “white” and “brown,” Fielding implicitly challenges the assertive naming and labeling power of the English in India. If “white” really only refers to skin tone—rather than also connoting superiority, advanced religion, technology, and morality—then “whites” have no inherent right to rule India.
Adela’s conflicted view of naming or labeling constitutes a major tension within her character. On the one hand, Adela recognizes that the ability to label gives one power—or, as she might say, a purpose or place in the world. India’s resistance to identification, symbolized by the nameless green bird, challenges Adela’s sense of individuality. On the other hand, Adela realizes that being on the receiving end of a label can leave one powerless. It is for this reason that she remains resistant to marrying Ronny, knowing that she will be labeled an Englishwoman in India—a club wife—and that her behavior will be restricted accordingly. When Adela feels her individuality challenged by India’s resistance to identification, she seems more likely to turn to Ronny for marriage; yet, when she recognizes the tyranny of labels like “Englishwoman in India,” she feels reluctant to marry Ronny.
We see in these chapters that the natural environment of India has a direct effect on Ronny and Adela’s engagement. As soon as Adela tells Ronny she does not want to become engaged, their surroundings begin to overwhelm them, making them feel like lonely, sensual beings who share more similarities than differences. In particular, they feel that the night sky swallows them during their ride with the Nawab Bahadur. The sky makes Ronny and Adela feel indistinct as individuals, suddenly part of a larger mass that is somehow fundamentally united. Therefore, when their hands touch accidentally in the car, both Ronny and Adela are attuned to the animalistic thrill of sensuality. Their experience under the engulfing Indian sky draws Ronny and Adela together, forcing them to assert themselves as important, distinct individuals through a commitment to each other.
Furthermore, the social environment of India—the Indians who surround Ronny and Adela—contributes to this shift in perspective in the couple’s relationship, their new feeling that they are more alike than different. Specifically, Ronny and Adela feel a bond through their shared distaste for Miss Derek and the Nawab Bahadur—a bond that leads Adela to suddenly reverse her decision and renew her engagement to Ronny. In this regard, Forster implies that the union of marriage requires a third presence, against which husband and wife can define themselves as similar. Indeed, after announcing their renewed engagement, Adela shows her openness to her future with Ronny through her willingness to make fun of the Nawab Bahadur with him.
While Ronny and Adela feel a sense of unity against the muddle that is India, we see Mrs. Moore grow even more spiritually attuned to the minds of Indians. First Mrs. Moore appears to be most aligned with the religious figure of Professor Godbole. Godbole’s song, in which God is called but does not come, profoundly affects Mrs. Moore, deepening her sense of separation from her Christian God. Then, when Ronny and Adela tell Mrs. Moore of their car accident with Nawab Bahadur, the elder woman strongly feels that a ghost caused the accident. Though Ronny and Adela ignore Mrs. Moore, we learn a short while later that the Nawab Bahadur, too, suspects that a ghost caused the accident—the ghost of the drunken man that he ran over nine years ago near the same spot. While Ronny and Adela begin to segregate themselves from the social and natural landscape that surrounds them, Mrs. Moore surrenders to the overwhelming presence and mysticism she feels in India, attuning herself to a sort of collective psyche of the land she is visiting.

Part II, Chapters XII–XIV
Summary: Chapter XII
The hills containing the Marabar Caves are older than anything else on earth. The rocky hills thrust up abruptly from the soil and resemble nothing else in the surrounding landscape. Each cave has a narrow entrance tunnel that leads to a large, dark, circular chamber. If a match is lit inside the caves, its reflection appears clearly in the polished stone of the cave walls. The caves seem to embody nothingness; their reputation spreads not just by word of mouth, but seemingly through the earth itself or through the animals. On the highest hill of the rock formations precariously rests a large boulder, which is thought to be hollow. The hill is called Kawa Dol.
Summary: Chapter XIII
Looking toward the Marabar Hills one day, Adela remarks that she would have liked to visit them with Aziz. Her servant overhears the remark, and exaggerated word of it travels to Aziz, who feels that he must make good on his earlier offer. The outing involves many details and much expense on Aziz’s part, but he organizes everything and invites Fielding and Godbole, along with the two ladies, to Marabar. Ronny gives permission for the women to go, as long as Fielding goes along with them.
The train that travels to the hills leaves just before dawn, so Aziz, Mohammed Latif, and many servants spend the night at the train station to avoid being late. Mrs. Moore, Adela, and the women’s servant, Antony, arrive early in the morning. Adela dislikes Antony and, on Aziz’s suggestion, orders him to go home. Antony refuses, however, on Ronny’s orders, until Mohammed Latif bribes him to leave.
Though Fielding has not yet arrived with Godbole, Aziz is not nervous because he knows that Englishmen never miss trains. Aziz reviews the details of the trip with Mohammed Latif, who is to oversee the railway carriage. Suddenly, the train starts to move just as Fielding and Godbole arrive at the station. Fielding yells that Godbole’s overlong prayers have made them late, and the Englishman tries unsuccessfully to jump on the train. Aziz becomes panicked and desperate, but Mrs. Moore and Adela reassure him that the outing will continue successfully without Fielding. Aziz suddenly feels love for the two women—Mrs. Moore especially—for their graciousness and blindness to race.
Summary: Chapter XIV
[Mrs. Moore] felt . . . that, though people are important, the relations between them are not, and that in particular too much fuss has been made over marriage.
(See Important Quotations Explained)
Ever since they heard Godbole sing his Hindu song at Fielding’s tea, Adela and Mrs. Moore have lived as though inside cocoons—not feeling anything. Mrs. Moore accepts her apathy, but Adela blames herself for her feelings of indifference. Adela even fakes excitement at times because she feels like she should be excited.
During the train ride, Adela thinks and chats with Mrs. Moore about her future plans. The elder Englishwoman, who is not in good health, feels impatient with marriage. She thinks to herself that society’s valuation of marriage over other relationships has stunted its understanding of human nature.
Nearing the hills, the train comes to a stop next to an elephant. For Aziz’s benefit, Adela and Mrs. Moore feign excitement about taking an elephant ride. Aziz feels happy and relieved, as he indeed went to great trouble to obtain the elephant for the outing. The group climbs up onto the elephant, and many villagers gather and walk with it to the Marabar Caves. In the pale early morning light, the landscape appears colorless and somewhat lifeless, suffused with an odd silence. Illusions abound, but there is no romance. Adela mistakes a tree branch for a snake; the villagers concur that it is a snake and refuse to let Adela correct their error. The group finally reaches the hills, but Adela and Mrs. Moore do not find them beautiful, and Aziz does not know enough about the area to act as an effective tour guide.
While Aziz’s servants prepare tea for the women, Aziz reflects happily that the trip is a success thus far. He likens himself to the Mogul Emperor Babur, who never stopped showing hospitality and never betrayed a friend. The women ask Aziz about Babur and about another Mogul emperor, Akbar. Aziz has only contempt for Akbar, who foolishly thought he could use religion to unite all of India, when nothing can accomplish that goal. Adela expresses her hope that there will be something universal in India, if only to keep her from becoming snobby and rude like the other Englishwomen.
The group enters the first cave, which becomes crowded when the villagers follow them. Mrs. Moore feels crowded and she panics when something strikes her on the face. She is terrified by the cave’s echo, which takes all sounds and reduces them to the sound “boum.” The group exits the caves, and Mrs. Moore realizes that it was only a baby (from the retinue of servants accompanying the expedition) that hit her face. She politely refuses to enter another cave, but she encourages Adela to continue on with Aziz. At Mrs. Moore’s suggestion, Aziz forbids the villagers to accompany them into the next set of caves.
Aziz, Adela, and the guide leave. Mrs. Moore tries to write a letter to her other children, Stella and Ralph, but she is haunted by the sound of the echo in the cave. The echo seems to suggest that nothing has value, and it renders even the words of Mrs. Moore’s Christianity null. Mrs. Moore becomes despairing and completely apathetic.
Analysis: Chapters XII–XIV
Just as Part I begins with a chapter-long description of Chandrapore and its environs, Part II begins with a chapter-long description of the Marabar Hills and the caves. These descriptions set the tenor of the section to come; here, the narrative emphasizes the hills’ alien quality of primitiveness and nothingness. The caves and the hills in which they are located predate all things known to humanity, including language and religion. The hills are described as “unspeakable”—an ambiguous term that not only connotes the hills’ location outside time and human history, but also implies that they are a sort of desecration of the landscape. Indeed, the hills are distinctly nonhuman and seem to embody a physical nothingness. Forster uses the phrase “nothing, nothing” twice in the opening chapter, and we see that the word “nothing” recurs numerous times throughout Part II. This focus on absence, or lack, combined with the menacing, primal setting of the Marabar Hills, sets an appropriate tone for Part II, in which the personal relations built up in Part I fall apart. In Part II, individual characters become isolated, confused, and sensitive to an eternal force just outside their comprehension—a force of nothingness and emptiness that is embodied in the Marabar Caves.
Aziz’s organized outing to the caves—the main event of these chapters and arguably of the novel as a whole—is fraught with misunderstandings and cruel ironies from the outset. A misunderstanding engenders the expedition to begin with: neither Aziz nor the women particularly want to go to the caves, but inaccurate currents of gossip convince Aziz that the ladies are eager to make the journey. Though Aziz plans the expedition meticulously, the entire affair is jeopardized, ironically, when Fielding—allegedly a stereotypically prompt Englishman—misses the train. Furthermore, though Adela and Mrs. Moore expect Aziz at least to provide them with an authentic view of India on the trip, they are disappointed to see that he has hired an elephant for them—a trademark of the inauthentic tours of India that the Turtons and other English colonials typically organize. Deepening the irony and misunderstanding, Aziz assumes that the women are delighted with the elephant, as he considers the animal a symbol of authentic India. Further irony comes from the fact that Aziz, who has never been to the Marabar Caves himself, is forced to act as the ladies’ tour guide, because the only person knowledgeable about the caves—Godbole—has been left behind.
To add to the aura of misfortune hanging over the expedition, both Mrs. Moore and Adela are plagued by a spiritual or emotional deadness that they date to the moment when Professor Godbole sings his Hindu song in Chapter VII. Godbole’s song resurfaces several more times in the novel, with the song’s refrain—a supplication to God to “Come! come”—being especially important. In Chapter XII, Adela connects the refrain of the song to the Indian landscape, as she senses that the land appeals to someone, but offers nothing in return. Her concern with the countryside is also linked to her lack of excitement over the prospect of married life with Ronny in India. The refrain of Godbole’s song, which assumes the presence of God but also asserts that God’s presence will never be fulfilled, has awakened a lack of feeling in Mrs. Moore, and particularly in Adela. The women experience this emptiness and lack within themselves and also see it mirrored in the natural landscape surrounding them, which appears colorless and vacant.
Forster uses an interesting image to describe the emotional lack that Adela and Mrs. Moore feel, saying that the women have “lived more or less inside cocoons” since hearing Godbole’s song. The image of the cocoon implies that the women are shut down, hibernating within themselves and cut off from others. Indeed, though Adela and Mrs. Moore maintain the pretense of polite interaction with Aziz, we sense that the two women feel disconnected from each other. Their conversation on the train is somewhat tense and awkward, and at one point Mrs. Moore even dozes off while Adela continues to speak. The image of a cocoon also suggests that the women are in a waiting period before a transformation or metamorphosis of some sort—a foreshadowing of the radical effect that the Marabar Caves soon has on each of them.
Forster also foreshadows the strange effect of the Marabar Caves through his depiction of the landscape leading up to the caves. He emphasizes the inorganic element of the setting: though living things exist within it, there is no color, no movement, and no vitality. Everything seems “cut off at its root,” suggesting that the natural elements of the landscape have been perverted in some way. This perversion leads to a sense of illusion and confusion, as when Adela mistakes a stick for a snake. She corrects herself after looking through her field-glasses, but the villagers refuse to believe that the stick is not a snake after hearing her words. Within such a blank and empty landscape, words hold as much power as objects—and perhaps more. The natural world appears as a vacuum in which life does not exist, in which words fail to connect naturally to objects. Forster’s descriptions of this unnatural, inorganic landscape prepare us for the Marabar Caves themselves, which seem to nullify vitality, incite illusions, and render Mrs. Moore and Adela unable to use language to describe their experience.
The horror Mrs. Moore experiences in the Marabar Caves is the most intense manifestation of the sense of emptiness that is at the core of A Passage to India. The strange nothingness of Mrs. Moore’s experience is heightened by the fact that the episode is narrated not as it transpires, but in a more distant past tense than the immediate past tense that Forster uses in the rest of the novel. The effect is one of narrative absence, as if the narrator—and we as readers—must wait outside the cave, separated from the action until we learn of it through Mrs. Moore’s recall. Initially, it is the darkness and closeness of the cave that alarms Mrs. Moore: it incites illusions, as when she mistakes a baby’s hand for some “vile naked thing.” But the most alarming and disturbing aspect of the cave for Mrs. Moore is its echo, which swallows all words and sounds uttered in the cave and returns them as “boum.”
The echo is, in effect, a black hole in which difference and value are rendered nil and returned as a single repetitive syllable—“everything exists, nothing has value.” The echo completely destroys the power of language and meaning, reducing everything from the smallest utterance to the loftiest ideas and pronouncements of the Bible—“from ‘Let there be Light’ to ‘It is finished’ ”—to the same meaningless syllable. In short, the echo “rob[s] infinity and eternity of their vastness.” This vision, in which good and evil are indistinguishable, is terrifying to Mrs. Moore. Thus far in the novel we have seen that Mrs. Moore embraces a rather mystical, holistic view of humankind as a single, unified whole. Here, however, she sees that unity—in the sense of sameness and indistinctness—can also be a terrifying thing, as destruction of difference in many ways entails destruction of meaning. For Mrs. Moore, this sudden realization renders her entire belief system meaningless, leaving her feeling stunned, flabbergasted, and powerless.

Part II, Chapters XV–XIX
Summary: Chapter XV
Aziz, Adela, and the guide climb up toward other caves higher in the hills. Aziz’s mind is preoccupied with breakfast preparations. Adela is also distracted, as she suddenly realizes that she and Ronny are not in love. Adela asks Aziz if he is married and if he has more than one wife. The second question shocks Aziz, and he ducks into a cave to recover. Adela follows shortly and enters another cave.
Summary: Chapter XVI
Aziz exits the cave to find the guide alone. The two men hear the sound of a motorcar. Aziz looks for Adela, and the guide explains that she went into one of the caves. Aziz scolds the guide for not keeping Adela in sight, and together they shout for her. In frustration, Aziz slaps the guide, who runs away. Then, with relief, Aziz notices Adela already down the hills, speaking to a woman near the motorcar. Aziz notices Adela’s field-glasses lying broken on the ground. He picks them up and proceeds back to camp, where he is elated to find that Fielding has arrived in Miss Derek’s car. Aziz sends a retinue down to escort Miss Derek up to the camp, but Miss Derek and Adela have already started to drive back to Chandrapore. Aziz cheerfully accepts this new development, but Fielding senses that something is wrong with Adela.
Aziz, wanting to avoid the unpleasant memory of Adela’s question about polygamy, has already refined the facts of their excursion up the hill. Fielding presses Aziz for details because he feels the two women have been rude to the Indian. Aziz, barely realizing he is lying, reassures Fielding that the guide escorted Adela down to the car.
On the elephant ride back to the train, Fielding figures that the expedition must have cost Aziz hundreds of rupees. The group boards the train and rides back to Chandrapore. When they arrive at the city, Mr. Haq, the inspector of police, boards the train and arrests Aziz. Aziz panics and attempts to run out another door, but Fielding stops him. Fielding calms Aziz, reassuring him that there must be some mistake and that they will straighten it out together. The two men walk out onto the platform, where Mr. Turton orders Fielding to remain behind while Aziz goes to prison.
Summary: Chapter XVII
Mr. Turton, looking fanatical and brave, informs Fielding that Adela has been “insulted”—presumably, sexually assaulted—in one of the Marabar Caves. Adela herself has lodged the complaint. Fielding protests that Aziz must be innocent. Turton informs Fielding that there is to be an informal meeting at the club that night to discuss the accusations. Turton explains that Adela is quite ill, and he is furious that Fielding is not as enraged as all the other English are. As Turton rides back to his bungalow, he looks with self-satisfied outrage at each Indian he passes.
Summary: Chapter XVIII
Mr. McBryde, superintendent of police, receives Aziz politely at the jail. McBryde has a theory that Indians have criminal tendencies because of the climate—thus, the Indians’ behavior is not their fault. Fielding arrives at McBryde’s to get the details of the case. McBryde explains that Adela has claimed that Aziz followed her into a cave and made advances on her. She hit at him with her field-glasses and he broke the strap. McBryde shows Fielding the broken glasses, which the police have found on Aziz’s person.
Fielding wants to ask Adela if she is completely sure Aziz attacked her. McBryde sends to Major Callendar for permission, but Callendar refuses because Adela is so ill. Mahmoud Ali and Hamidullah arrive in turn to consult Aziz.
Fielding continues to refuse to believe Aziz is guilty. McBryde begins to tell Fielding of a letter from a brothel owner that has been found in Aziz’s house. Fielding does not want to hear details, however, and he admits that he himself visited brothels at Aziz’s age. A police officer arrives with evidence from Aziz’s bedroom, including pictures of women. Fielding explains that the photographs are of Aziz’s wife. Fielding asks to visit with Aziz.
Summary: Chapter XIX
Fielding runs into Hamidullah outside McBryde’s office. While Fielding is anxious and impassioned, Hamidullah is calm and resigned. Hamidullah strategizes for Aziz’s bail and defense team. Fielding feels deflated by Hamidullah’s pragmatism and by the discrepancies in Aziz’s story. But Fielding reassures Hamidullah that he is on “their” side, though he regrets taking sides at all.
Fielding returns to the college. Professor Godbole approaches Fielding about several trivial college matters. Fielding asks Godbole if he has heard about Aziz. Godbole has, but he quickly changes the subject. Fielding impatiently asks Godbole if he thinks Aziz is innocent or guilty. Godbole explains that according to his own philosophy, an evil action was performed at the caves, and that action was equally performed by Aziz, the guide, Fielding, Godbole himself, Godbole’s students, even Adela herself. This response frustrates Fielding because it does not recognize the difference between good and evil. Godbole clarifies. Both good and evil are aspects of God, as God is present in good and absent in evil. Godbole then changes the subject again.
Fielding visits Aziz that afternoon, finding the doctor miserable and incoherent. Fielding leaves and writes a letter to Adela.
Analysis: Chapters XV–XIX
Aziz and Adela’s hike to the higher caves is plagued by a sense of awkward sexual guilt and embarrassment. Aziz already feels somewhat repelled by Adela because of her lack of physical beauty and because of her upcoming marriage to Ronny, which will make her a rude Englishwoman like the rest. Meanwhile, Adela’s startling realization that she and Ronny do not love each other makes her doubtful and ashamed. She unconsciously transfers her shame and discomfort to Aziz by insensitively asking him if he has more than one wife. Aziz resents this offense to his Western value system and ducks into a cave, feeling embarrassed both for himself and for Adela. Adela ducks into a different cave, feeling guilty about her lack of love for Ronny. While Aziz and Adela never meet in the same cave, Adela’s mysterious experience of being “insulted” appears to stem from this prevailing atmosphere of sexual shame and embarrassment.
As with Mrs. Moore’s experience in the cave in the previous section, Forster does not allow us to see Adela while she is actually in the cave, which leaves her attack a mystery to us. We do, however, see Aziz’s thoughts and whereabouts during this time, so we know that he is innocent. As in the early parts of the novel, Forster gives us the Indian perspective first, upstaging the inevitably contradictory English viewpoint. Indeed, as we see in the upcoming chapters, the action continues to center on Aziz rather than Adela. While we see the English jump to conclusions about Aziz’s guilt, we see Aziz inadvertently make himself appear guilty by trying to run from the police and by fudging his story to Fielding. Accordingly, Part II follows the plot of the wrongful incrimination of Aziz and its ramifications, rather than devolving into a routine mystery story about what really happened in the cave. Forster encourages us not to try to guess who or what might have attacked Adela, but rather to focus on the result—the racial tensions that erupt afterward.
Ironically, it is only Aziz who remains happy through the remainder of the Marabar outing. He is thrilled with the arrival of Fielding, and he does not let Adela’s sudden departure bother him. The outing has affected everyone else negatively, however, and it has begun to divide them with accusations of blame. Mrs. Moore blames Miss Derek for Adela’s hasty departure. Fielding blames Miss Derek and especially Adela for being rude to Aziz. Mrs. Moore and Fielding view each other as competitors for Aziz’s affection. Finally, Fielding feels somewhat alienated from Aziz by what he sees as Aziz’s impractical spending on an expedition for ungrateful Englishwomen. This sudden aura of blame and suspicion foreshadows the charges that are filed against Aziz, along with the broader tensions that those charges soon inflame.
The chapters immediately following Aziz’s arrest are told from Fielding’s point of view, which allows us to see how the alleged crime and arrest bring out the worst in both the English and the Indians. The English officials immediately and unreservedly assume that Aziz is guilty, and they go on to apply that guilt to Indians generally. Even the relatively reasonable Turton and McBryde are shocked and offended that Fielding would even think of standing up for Aziz. There is a tenor of self-satisfaction to the Englishmen’s reaction, as though this crime confirms their long-held suspicions and stereotypes about Indians. The Indians, for their part, do not stand in defense of Aziz’s moral character, but instead focus on details of evidence and legal process. As usual, Forster is more sympathetic in his portrayal of the Indian side, especially Hamidullah and Aziz’s other friends, whose practical reaction to Aziz’s arrest seems warranted by the clearly biased investigation. Still, both the English and Indians use the occasion of Aziz’s arrest as a call to arms of sorts, an opportunity to consolidate sides and battle out racial tension that has long been simmering under the surface.
Though Fielding is reluctant to take sides in the uproar, the only person who stays completely aloof is Professor Godbole. When Fielding presses Godbole for his opinion about Aziz’s innocence or guilt, Godbole offers only the philosophic musing that everyone is responsible for the evil action that has occurred at the Marabar Caves. Godbole’s refusal to distinguish between good and evil recalls the all-equalizing, all-reducing echo that Mrs. Moore experiences in the caves. Yet while Mrs. Moore and Fielding both are unsettled by the muddle of good and evil, Godbole finds comfort in his philosophy, which concerns itself with eternal questions rather than minute particulars. Indeed, Godbole’s Hindu viewpoint is not without a moral message. He implies that by meditating on the spiritual force that enfolds us all, we avoid the pitfalls of pointing fingers and assigning blame.

Part II, Chapters XXIV–XXV
Summary: Chapter XXIV
The hot season has begun, and everyone retreats indoors, away from the sun. The morning of Aziz’s trial, the Turtons drive Adela to the courthouse with a police escort. On the way, Mr. Turton thinks to himself that he does not hate Indians, for to do so would be to denounce his own career and the energy spent on them. He concludes that it is Englishwomen who really make matters worse in India.
In front of the courthouse, students jeer at the car. Rafi, hiding behind a friend, yells that the English are cowards. Inside, the English gather in Ronny’s office and loudly trade rumors about an Indian rebellion and Fielding’s traitorous behavior. Ronny expresses confidence in his subordinate, Das, who is acting as judge for the case. Major Callendar loudly denounces all Indians. He relates with satisfaction that the Nawab Bahadur’s grandson recently suffered severe facial injury from a car accident; all Indians should be similarly made to suffer. Everyone ignores Adela, who sits quietly, fearing she will have a breakdown during her examination.
When the case is called, the group files into the courtroom to their special chairs. Adela notices the lowly Indian servant operating the fan. He has a beautiful, godlike demeanor and appears aloof from everything taking place in the room.
McBryde opens the case for the prosecution. He presents as scientific fact his assertion that darker races lust after fairer races, but not vice versa. An Indian in the audience protests that Adela is ugly. Adela becomes flustered. Callendar requests that Adela be moved to the platform for better air. All of the English then move to the platform. Amritrao, the lawyer from Calcutta, protests that having all the English up on the platform will intimidate the witnesses. Das agrees that everyone but Adela must return to the floor. Outside the courtroom, word of this humiliation spreads, and the crowd jeers.
McBryde argues that Aziz lives a double life, simultaneously “respectable” and depraved. McBryde dwells on Aziz’s attempt to crush Mrs. Moore in the first cave. Mahmoud Ali objects to this accusation, as Mrs. Moore will not be testifying at the trial. Mahmoud Ali bemoans the fact that Ronny has sent Mrs. Moore away, as she knew Aziz was innocent. Despite Das’s attempts to restore calm, Mahmoud Ali shouts that the trial is a farce and all of them slaves. He leaves the courtroom in protest. The Indians begin chanting “Mrs. Moore” as if it were a charm, until the chant sounds like “Esmiss Esmoor.”
Adela goes up to the witness stand. She suddenly feels like she is back at Marabar, and that it seems more lovely this time. As McBryde questions her, she visualizes each step of that day. When he asks if Aziz followed her into the cave, she requests a minute to answer. Visualizing the caves, she cannot picture him following her. She states quietly that she has made a mistake, that Aziz never followed her. The courtroom erupts. Callendar tries to halt the trial on medical grounds, but Adela confirms that she withdraws all the charges. The enraged Mrs. Turton screams insults at Adela. Das officially releases Aziz.
Summary: Chapter XXV
Adela is pushed along in the tide of Indians toward the exit. Fielding asks her where she is going. She responds listlessly, so he reluctantly takes her to his carriage for her safety. Fielding’s students are gathered around the carriage. They convince Fielding and Adela to get inside and they then pull the two through town. Indians drape flowers around Adela, though some are critical of the two English sticking together.
The roads in Chandrapore are blocked with crowds, and the Eng-lish are cut off on the way back to the civil station. Adela and Fielding are pulled back to the college. The phone lines are cut, and the servants gone. Fielding encourages Adela to rest and lies down himself.
Meanwhile, Aziz, in his victory procession, cries out for Fielding, who has abandoned him. Mahmoud Ali orders the procession to the hospital to rescue the Nawab Bahadur’s grandson, as word has circulated that Mahmoud Ali overheard Callendar bragging about torturing the young man. The Nawab Bahadur urges restraint, but the crowd proceeds to the hospital.
Disaster is averted only by Panna Lal, who mistakenly believes the crowd has come to the hospital to punish him for offering to testify for the English. Lal acts the buffoon to honor the vengeful men, and he retrieves the Nawab Bahadur’s grandson for them. The Nawab Bahadur averts further disaster by making a long-winded speech in which he renounces his loyalist title. He invites Aziz and friends to his house for a celebration that night. The baking heat of the hot season bears down on the city, and nearly everyone retreats indoors to sleep.
Analysis: Chapters XXIV–XXV
By the time of the trial, it becomes clear that the English value the sense of conflict that Adela’s alleged assault has triggered much more than the welfare of Adela herself. The English solely focus on the vengeance to be had through Aziz’s trial, ignoring the true trauma that Adela still suffers—the trauma of the echo. The less sympathetic English essentially ignore Adela, even on the morning of the trial, and instead engage in gossip about Fielding and inflated stories about Indian dissent and rebellion. Even the sympathetic, chivalrous Mr. Turton, who is attentive to Adela, thinks to himself that the general presence of Englishwomen in India is the cause of all English-Indian tension.
In the chapters that deal with Aziz’s trial, we begin to see clearly the differences between Ronny’s character and the character of the majority of the English. Though Ronny does not focus on Adela’s personal pain more than any of the others, he does become somewhat more gracious in the aftermath of her ordeal. Adela’s assault makes Ronny into a sort of martyr figure for the English, as his fiancée has been wronged; this status seems to release him from the English community’s vengeance-seeking. During the trial, Ronny almost exclusively focuses on his subordinate, Mr. Das, who is trying the case. Ronny feels condescendingly confident in Das and looks forward to Das’s successful performance as a good reflection on Ronny himself. Here, like Turton, Ronny is a character who feels confident in the British Empire and in the process of justice that the Empire brings to India. Though Ronny does not share the cross-culturally sympathetic character of his mother, Mrs. Moore, neither does he seek disproportionate revenge against the Indians, as many of the other English do.
The strategy of McBryde, the prosecution’s lawyer, is to present his interpretation of the facts of the case in such a dry, emotionless, and “scientific” manner that they appear to be the truth. His interpretation of Aziz’s actions and character resembles Ronny’s interpretation of Aziz’s meeting with Mrs. Moore in the mosque in Chapter III. Mrs. Moore acknowledged that Ronny’s ungenerous interpretation, though it could be factually correct, ignored the warmth and trustworthiness of Aziz’s character that she herself sensed. Here, McBryde’s account similarly presents mere interpretations of fact as fact. McBryde’s account is devoid of any recognition or sympathetic understanding of Aziz’s honorable character. Additionally, McBryde’s account—while presenting itself as “truth”—ignores specific angles of the case (such as the disappeared Marabar guide) and depends on biased character witnesses such as Panna Lal.
In response to the pretense of logic and fact that the English put forward, Mahmoud Ali emotionally argues that the English have conspired to withhold Mrs. Moore as a witness. This assertion prompts the Indian crowd in the courtroom to begin chanting Mrs. Moore’s name. To the English, these actions are proof of the Indians’ tendency to be overemotional and superstitious; Forster, however, presents the incantation of “Esmiss Esmoor” as a sort of collective Indian intuition about what is missing from the English pretense of justice. Mrs. Moore comes to symbolize an ideal, spiritual, sympathetic, and—perhaps most important—race-blind understanding. Though Mrs. Moore herself succumbs to apathy after her visit to Marabar and never offers to defend Aziz at his trial, she acquires an almost godlike significance through the rest of A Passage to India. Forster adeptly shows Mrs. Moore’s shortcomings as human, yet also presents her as a positive symbol of unself-conscious and spiritually perceptive interracial understanding. Forster implies that Mrs. Moore’s brand of extraordinary, undemonstrative compassion is what is missing from the English-style trial.
Adela is able to declare Aziz’s innocence during the trial because she experiences a vision during her testimony. This vision is, in a sense, a positive version of the vision Mrs. Moore experienced after going into the first cave at Marabar. In that cave, Mrs. Moore has a vision of all differences being collapsed into the sameness of the echo, “boum.” This lack of individuation and valuation frightens Mrs. Moore and makes her cease to care about individual relationships. Adela’s vision is similarly impersonal. She experiences an out-of-body re-creation of her expedition into Marabar, and in it, she actually “sees” that Aziz did not enter the cave after her. The impersonal, detached point of view of this vision allows Adela to put honesty before her individual feelings or relationships with others. Forster foreshadows this revelation of Adela’s relative unimportance when Adela first enters the courtroom and notices the poor but godlike Indian operating the fan. His aloofness and beauty suggest a detached, spiritual perspective from which Adela and her trauma appear less significant. Forster presents Adela’s experience of spiritual impersonality as a positive vision that restores the balance of justice in the trial.
All the main events in A Passage to India, strangely, are actually nonevents. The event of Adela’s experience of an assault in the Marabar Caves turns out to be an imagined assault. The event that should be Aziz’s conviction is rendered a nonevent by Adela, who quietly affirms Aziz’s innocence. Similarly, in the aftermath of the trial, the strain on English-Indian relations builds to a climax, but these tensions wither in the oppressive heat of the sun. The riotous Indians who gather at the Minto Hospital leave without violence to return home for naps. This anticlimactic tendency shows that Forster cares less about plot events than about how those events make an impression on individual characters and on the social atmosphere of the novel. Furthermore, the series of anticlimaxes reminds us of the pervasive sense of emptiness, absence, exclusion, and nothingness at the core of A Passage to India: more important than what we see occur is what we do not see occur; more important than what happens is what does not happen.

Part II, Chapters XXVI–XXIX
Summary: Chapter XXVI
Fielding reluctantly converses with Adela. She wants to discuss her behavior, but he is unwilling until she mentions that she has been ill. She says she has been ill with an echo since the day of the trip to the Marabar Caves, or perhaps the day she heard Godbole’s song. Fielding admits that he always suspected she was ill, or perhaps hallucinatory. Adela cannot quite describe the vision she had in court. Nonetheless, Fielding appreciates Adela’s meticulous honesty, and he apologizes for his rudeness to Ronny.
Adela asks Fielding what Aziz thinks of her. Fielding uncomfortably thinks about Aziz’s contempt for Adela’s ugliness. They discuss the possibility that the guide, or someone else, attacked Adela. Hamidullah arrives and is unhappy to see Fielding and Adela together. Hamidullah expresses severe disapproval of Adela because of the destruction she has carelessly brought upon Aziz. Hamidullah invites Fielding to the Nawab Bahadur’s house for the victory celebration. Adela prepares to depart, but Fielding invites her to remain at the college while he stays with Aziz’s friends. Hamidullah, however, is eager to be rid of Adela, for her emotionless demeanor repels him.
While the two men discuss what to do with Adela, Hamidullah is relieved to notice Ronny pull up. Fielding meets Ronny outside and learns that Mrs. Moore has died on the voyage back to England and has been buried at sea. Fielding returns and sends Adela out. He and Hamidullah agree not to tell Aziz about Mrs. Moore until the next day. Adela returns, distraught at Mrs. Moore’s death, and asks to remain at the college. At Fielding’s request, Adela brings Ronny inside.
Hamidullah is unfriendly to Ronny. Fielding and Ronny settle the details of Adela’s stay at the College, and then Fielding and Hamidullah leave for the Nawab Bahadur’s celebration. On the way, Fielding overhears Hamidullah saying that Adela should be fined twenty thousand rupees. Fielding is distressed that Adela should lose her money and probably her fiancé as well.
Summary: Chapter XXVII
“Is emotion a sack of potatoes, so much the pound, to be measured out? Am I a machine?”
(See Important Quotations Explained)
Late that night, the celebrants at the victory party are bedded down on the Nawab Bahadur’s roof. Fielding and Aziz have a long talk. Aziz anticipates that Fielding will urge him not to make Adela pay any reparations. But Aziz no longer wants the English to admire him for his chivalry. Fielding explains that he himself changed his mind and now believes that Adela acted bravely and will suffer enough as it is. Aziz dismisses Adela because of her lack of beauty. Fielding becomes angry with Aziz’s sexual snobbery.
Finally, Aziz says he will consult Mrs. Moore and do what she suggests. Fielding points out that Aziz’s emotions are disproportionate: it was Adela who saved him, while Mrs. Moore went away—yet Aziz still loves Mrs. Moore and not Adela. Aziz rejects what he sees as Fielding’s materialism, which measures love pound-by-pound. Fielding explains to Aziz that Mrs. Moore has died, but Hamidullah, overhearing their conversation, tells Aziz that Fielding is joking. Aziz takes it as a joke.
Summary: Chapter XXVIII
In Chandrapore, a legend arises that Ronny killed his mother for attempting to save Aziz’s life. Two different tombs are reported to contain Mrs. Moore’s body, and townspeople leave offerings at both tombs.
The English do not respond to the rumors. Ronny knows that he was inconsiderate to his mother at the end, but he blames her for the trouble she continues to make with the legend of her death. Ronny hopes that troublesome Adela will leave India, too. He has not yet broken off their engagement, hoping that she will realize the marriage would ruin his career, and therefore back out politely.
Summary: Chapter XXIX
Perhaps life is a mystery, not a muddle. . . . Perhaps the hundred Indias which fuss and squabble so tiresomely are one, and the universe they mirror is one.
(See Important Quotations Explained)
The lieutenant-governor arrives in Chandrapore to survey the aftermath of the Marabar case. He congratulates Fielding for his upstanding behavior before and during the trial. Adela continues to stay at the college, and she and Fielding talk more frequently. He helps her draft an apology to Aziz. The apology seems unsatisfactory: though Adela is just, she does not truly love India and Indians.
Aziz and Fielding begin to quarrel about future plans and about Adela’s reparation payment. Fielding resorts to a mention of Mrs. Moore, and finally Aziz gives in and agrees to ask Adela only to repay his legal costs. As Aziz has predicted, his generosity wins him no prestige among the English, who will believe forever that he committed the crime.
Ronny visits Adela at the college and breaks off their engagement. Adela and Fielding talk afterward. Adela sadly repents for all the trouble she has caused everyone. She admits, though, that she and Ronny should not have thought about marriage in the first place. Like old friends, Fielding and Adela talk about the difficulties of love. Fielding questions Adela about the incident in the cave one final time. Indifferently, she accepts that it was the guide who assaulted her. She explains that only Mrs. Moore knew for sure, perhaps by telepathy. Fielding and Adela continue to chat, but their practicality and friendliness are slightly plagued by a sense of something indefinable and infinite in the universe.
Adela takes a ship home to England. She decides on the way to look up Mrs. Moore’s two other children, Ralph and Stella, when she arrives.
Analysis: Chapters XXVI–XXIX
In Fielding and Adela’s conversations after the trial, Forster focuses not on conjecture about what might have happened to Adela in the cave, but rather on the uneasiness of two unspiritual people with a mysterious and otherworldly event. Fielding and Adela’s discussions of Marabar and Adela’s testimony at the trial raise ideas of ghosts and visions with which both are uncomfortable. The two begin to sense that “life is a mystery, not a muddle,” in Forster’s words. To fend off these uncomfortable ideas, the two find solace in scientific words like “hallucination,” or in the possibility that another culprit, such as Aziz’s guide, was responsible for a real, physical attack. Forster presents the conversations between Fielding and Adela as fluctuations between a spiritual recognition of something infinite and eternal and a comforting return to the familiarity of traditional English rationalism.
The announcement of Mrs. Moore’s death further troubles this sense of English rationalism, particularly for Adela. Adela is struck by the realization that Mrs. Moore died at just about the time when the Indians in the courtroom crowd began chanting her name. This simultaneity further associates Mrs. Moore with mystical power and suggests that her spirit is present in the courtroom—a sense that Aziz confirms. Additionally, the fact that Mrs. Moore is buried at sea further implies that she is not of either world, India or England, but permanently occupies a liminal space between them. Though Forster presents the cult of Mrs. Moore that emerges in Chandrapore as silly and superstitious, he nevertheless implies that the woman’s spirit represents significant mystical power.
Though Adela bravely resists the encouragement of the English contingent when she pronounces Aziz innocent, Aziz, Hamidullah, and many other Indians continue to hold a grudge against her—a grudge that reinforces a dichotomy between Indian values and English values. The Indians hold a grudge not because of Adela’s responsibility for Aziz’s downfall, but because her rescue of Aziz is so emotionless. The Indians sense no kindness or love behind Adela’s action, so they suspect it is an insincere trick. Again, Forster sets up a dichotomy between the English focus on literal honesty and the Indian focus on the emotions lying behind actions or words. The Indians’ resistance to Adela mirrors their resistance to the British Empire as a whole, which similarly administers justice without sincere compassion or kindness.
Though Forster’s critique of the British Empire has hitherto been the same critique the Indians themselves make—that the Empire lacks imaginative compassion—his critique begins to shift after Adela’s trial. Fielding, who generally serves as the mouthpiece for Forster in the novel, begins to feel wary of the Indian attention to imaginative compassion over all else. Fielding believes that Aziz’s preoccupation with kindness blinds him to the fact that Adela has taken more action on his behalf than Mrs. Moore ever did. Aziz resents the implication that his emotions should be perfectly measured, as he feels that this view does not account for his nonliteral, nonlinguistic idea of love. Fielding, however, increasingly suspects that imagination betrays those who depend on it to the exclusion of all else. If Forster has shown in Part I of A Passage to India that most English suffer from a lack of imagination and compassion, he shows toward the end of Part II that too much imagination and compassion has the potential to lead the Indians astray.
Perhaps the clearest example of imagination leading Indians astray in these chapters is the initial rift between Fielding and Aziz. When Fielding accompanies Adela back to the college directly after the trial, Aziz feels that Fielding has abandoned him. We know, however, that Fielding has perfectly good reason to fear for Adela’s safety, and that he has no intention whatsoever of neglecting Aziz. Aziz gets carried away in his somewhat self-pitying sense of Fielding’s betrayal, and the relationship between the two men begins to break apart.
Fielding, for his part, becomes increasingly disillusioned with his Indian friends in general. He feels that Aziz, Hamidullah, and others are unnecessarily cruel in seeking incredible sums of monetary compensation from Adela. Fielding is also surprised by Hamidullah’s nastiness to both Adela and Ronny. Indeed, in these chapters, -Forster’s satire on English behavior gives way somewhat to a sense of disappointment with Indian behavior. The Indians, in reaction to their victory at the trial, become aggressive, start to complain of new, nonexistent mistreatments, and even resort to petty lawlessness. The English virtually vanish from the novel, as Forster’s critique—though never satiric—turns toward the Indians instead.

Part II, Chapters XX–XXIII
Summary: Chapter XX
The English gather at their club. The ladies feel compassion for Adela’s suffering and suddenly regret that they were not nicer to her. As if to make amends, Mrs. Turton stands by the side of Mrs. Blakiston, a woman she previously snubbed. Mr. Turton calms the women, who fear for their safety.
Once the women leave, Turton speaks to the men. He tries to remain fair, though everyone else overreacts about the possibility that women and children are in danger. One of the men, a drunken soldier, recommends military presence, but Turton urges everyone to act normally. The soldier fondly mentions an honorable Indian with whom he played polo.
Major Callendar arrives to report that Adela is recovered. He sits with the soldier and tries to bait Fielding. Callendar gossips that Adela’s servant was bribed to remain outside the caves, that Godbole, too, was bribed, and that Aziz ordered villagers to suffocate Mrs. Moore. Callendar loudly alludes to Fielding’s alliance with Aziz, but Fielding refuses to be provoked. Callendar suggests that troops be called, but Turton is against using force.
Ronny arrives, and the men stand up and welcome him as a martyr. Fielding, however, remains seated. The drunken soldier calls attention to Fielding’s rudeness. Turton confronts Fielding, who announces that Aziz is innocent. Fielding adds that he will resign from service in India if Aziz is found guilty, and that he resigns from the club effective immediately. Turton becomes furious, but Ronny tells him to let Fielding go.
Summary: Chapter XXI
Riding into Chandrapore, Fielding passes some children preparing for the celebration of Mohurram (an annual Muslim festival honoring the grandsons of the prophet Mohammed). Fielding meets with Aziz’s friends, who have renewed Aziz’s bail request and hired a famous anti-British lawyer from Calcutta.
Late that night, Fielding has the urge to speak with Godbole, but the professor is asleep. Godbole slips away to a new job a day or two later.
Summary: Chapter XXII
Adela, in shock, remains at the McBrydes’. Miss Derek and Mrs. McBryde treat Adela’s sunburn and pick out the hundreds of cactus spines stuck in her skin from her run down the hill. Adela’s emotions swing wildly. She sobs, then tries to logically review what happened—she entered, started the cave echo by scratching the wall with her fingernail, then saw a dark shadow move toward her. She hit at him with her field-glasses, he pulled her around the cave, then she escaped. She was never touched. Adela still hears the upsetting echo from the cave. She hopes Mrs. Moore will visit her and make her feel better.
When Adela’s condition improves, Ronny retrieves her. McBryde and Ronny inform her that there was a near riot when the procession of the Mohurram festival attempted to enter the civil station. They explain to Adela that Das, Ronny’s Indian assistant, will try her case. McBryde shows Adela a letter from Fielding, which has been opened. McBryde explains that Fielding has betrayed the English. Adela skims the letter and reads the line “Dr. Aziz is innocent.”
Ronny takes Adela home. Adela is happy to be reunited with Mrs. Moore, but Mrs. Moore remains on the couch, withdrawn from Adela’s advances. Adela tells Mrs. Moore about the echo she has been hearing, and Mrs. Moore responds knowingly. Adela asks Mrs. Moore what it is, but the older woman refuses to put it in words, and she predicts morbidly that Adela will hear it forever.
Mrs. Moore tells Ronny she will leave India sooner than planned. She will not testify at the trial. She will see her other two children into marriage, then retreat from the world. Mrs. Moore is sick of marriage—she sees little difference between love in a church and love in a cave.
Mrs. Moore leaves the room. Adela weeps, wondering aloud if she has made a mistake about Aziz. Adela thinks she heard Mrs. Moore say, “Dr. Aziz never did it,” but Ronny insists Mrs. Moore never said such words. Ronny finally convinces Adela that she is remembering lines from Fielding’s letter. Ronny urges her not to wonder aloud if Aziz might be innocent.
Mrs. Moore returns, and Ronny asks her to confirm that she never said Aziz was innocent. Indeed, Mrs. Moore never made such a statement, but she nonetheless responds matter-of-factly that Aziz is innocent. Ronny asks for evidence. Mrs. Moore replies that Aziz’s character is good. Adela wishes she could call off the trial, but she realizes how inconsiderate that would be to the men who have gone to so much trouble for her. Ronny decides to have his mother leave India as quickly as possible.
Summary: Chapter XXIII
The lieutenant-governor’s wife offers to let Mrs. Moore travel back to England in her cabin, as all the other cabins are full. Ronny is relieved and excited that his name will be made familiar to the lieutenant-governor.
Though Mrs. Moore does desire to go home, she feels no joy, as she has passed into a state of spiritual apathy. She recognizes that there are eternal forces behind life, but she is indifferent to these forces ever since her experiences at the Marabar Caves. To Mrs. Moore, the echo in the cave seemed to be something very selfish, something that predated the world. Since that time, she has felt selfish herself—she even begrudges Adela all of the attention she has received.
Even so, Mrs. Moore’s journey to Bombay is pleasant. She watches the sights outside her window and regrets she has not seen all that India has to offer. Bombay seems to mock her for thinking that the Marabar Caves were India—for there are a “hundred Indias.”
Analysis: Chapters XX–XXIII
In the aftermath of Aziz’s arrest, the English gather together in fear and solidarity. Using an ironic, satirical tone, Forster presents this abrupt shift of feeling as hypocritical. He shows how many of the English develop sudden compassion for people they previously snubbed, such as Mrs. Blakiston and Adela herself. Forster depicts this compassion as a momentarily genuine but generally self-serving, cathartic emotion. Perhaps the most perfect expression of the hypocrisy of this is the drunken English soldier’s description of his polo partner as a model of the rare honorable Indian. In a twist of dramatic irony, the soldier does not realize what we know—that his polo partner was Aziz. This twist recalls the episode in Chapter VIII when Ronny remarks that Aziz’s unpinned collar is emblematic of the Indians’ general laziness; we know that the unpinned collar is actually a mark of generosity, as Aziz has lent Fielding his last collar stud to replace the Englishman’s broken one. Forster frequently employs such dramatic irony in A Passage to India as an effective means of undermining English stereotypes of the Indians.
Many of the English take the assault on Adela as an assault by all Indians on the British Empire itself. Forster satirizes this overreaction as not only silly, but also dangerously based on sentimentality. Because of the presumed sexual nature of the assault, the English avoid speaking directly of the crime, the victim, or the perpetrator. The sense of mystery and sacredness that consequently surrounds Adela contributes to the Englishmen’s understanding of this isolated incident as an attack on English womanhood itself. The Englishmen see English womanhood, in turn, as symbolizing the Empire and all that it stands for. The Englishmen therefore react frantically and disproportionately to the alleged crime, even going so far as to consider summoning an armed guard to police the whole Indian population.
The Englishmen’s treatment of Fielding reveals the gap between Fielding’s expansive worldview and the narrow-minded fear of difference that most of the English display. First, Fielding upsets the Englishmen’s conception of the crime as unspeakable by mentioning both Adela and Aziz by name. Then Major Callendar and the soldier emerge as malicious and violent troublemakers who target Fielding because of his solidarity with the Indians—they imply that Fielding must choose sides, or else be treated as a spy or traitor. When Ronny enters the room and Fielding fails to stand up with the rest of the men, the others single-mindedly take Fielding’s inaction as a slight to Ronny. Fielding alone sees both sides of the action, and he refuses to tacitly reject Aziz and India by standing. While the other men see the crime through the narrow, exaggerated lens of racism, Fielding implicitly endorses Godbole’s universally-oriented philosophy that no action is isolated, that every action has many reactions.
When we finally hear Adela’s side of the story about what happened in the cave, we learn that she did not make up the accusations out of malice. However, her memory sheds no additional light on the crime, as she is unable to put the experience into definitive language. Adela’s naturally logical and practical mind struggles to convert the experience into narrative, but each effort breaks down, causing Adela herself to break down. Thus, we continue to see that the Marabar Caves seem to exert a primitive, powerful effect that upsets the power of language, meaning, and naming.
Much like Mrs. Moore, Adela is haunted by the constant presence of the echo from the Marabar Caves. Though Adela does not think about the echo in the same terms as Mrs. Moore, she appears similarly to have taken the echo as a malignant force. In the same way that Mrs. Moore feels the nullification of good and evil in the echo, Adela finds that the echo confuses moral distinctions. The echo causes Adela to oscillate between feeling like the victim of a crime and feeling like the perpetrator of an injustice who must beg forgiveness from all of India. Here again, the “boum” of the echo relates back to Godbole’s philosophy—namely, the professor’s conviction that all humans, including Adela herself, are responsible for the evil action for which Aziz has been arrested.
The differences between Mrs. Moore’s response to the echo and Adela’s response to the echo cement the differences between the two women as characters. Adela, who is practical and unspiritual, responds to the strange and confusing force of the echo by feeling more confident and certain of her status as a victim. Mrs. Moore, who is more attuned to eternal and intangible forces, is less resistant to the echo; she understands its force as negation. Yet while Godbole’s Hindu philosophy maintains that absence and presence, nothing and everything, are one and the same, Mrs. Moore can only experience negation as a void. Overwhelmed by this emptiness, Mrs. Moore accepts her subsequent instinct that human actions matter very little. Consequently, unlike the other English, she does not become inflamed with indignance on Adela’s behalf. Rather, Mrs. Moore treats the occasions of Ronny and Adela’s wedding and the assault on Adela as essentially the same: love in a church is equal to love in a cave, she says. Yet while Mrs. Moore does not join everyone else in falsely condemning Aziz, she does not stand up for Aziz either—even though intuitively she knows him to be innocent. The echo, then, somewhat destroys Mrs. Moore’s noble character, making her apathetic to the point of sickness and death.
With Mrs. Moore about to return to England and Adela suffering a breakdown, it seems that the two women’s quest to understand India has been patently unsuccessful. On her voyage to the steamship, Mrs. Moore comes to understand the error she and Adela made. Whereas Mrs. Moore and Adela sought the “real India”—a romanticized essence—they should have understood that India is not so easily knowable, as it exists in hundreds of complex ways.

Part II, Chapters XXX–XXXII
Summary: Chapter XXX
One consequence of Aziz’s trial is improved relations between Hindus and Muslims in Chandrapore. Mr. Das visits Aziz one day at the hospital and asks Aziz to write a poem for his magazine. The magazine readership is mostly Hindu, but Das hopes to make it appeal to the general Indian and believes that Aziz’s poem might help. Aziz agrees and goes home to write. All his attempts at poetry are too extreme, though—they veer toward too-sad pathos or too-harsh satire. Aziz tries to envision a successful poem for Das, and this speculation leads him to visions of a successful India. Aziz vows to be friendly to Hindus and to hate the British. His character becomes hardened.
Aziz meets with Hamidullah one day and explains his plan to take a job in a Hindu state. Hamidullah protests that such a job will not pay enough and scolds Aziz again for not making Adela pay reparations. Then Hamidullah passes on a rumor he has heard that Fielding was having an affair with Adela during her stay at the college. Aziz becomes explosive, yelling that everyone has betrayed him.
When Aziz calms down, he and Hamidullah prepare to visit the women of Hamidullah’s household in purdah. Hamidullah mentions that the women seemed to be ready to give up purdah at the time of Aziz’s trial, but that they have not yet done so. Hamidullah suggests that Aziz take a realistic view of the Indian lady as a subject for a poem.
Summary: Chapter XXXI
Aziz muses on the rumor of Adela and Fielding for several days, eventually believing it to be fact. When Fielding returns from a conference, Aziz picks him up and tries to address the rumor indirectly, mentioning that McBryde and Miss Derek were caught having an affair. Fielding is uninterested in this gossip, however. Finally, Aziz overtly mentions the rumor about Adela and Fielding, expressing fear that the affair will hurt Fielding’s reputation. Aziz clearly is fishing for a straightforward denial, but Fielding does not provide one. Instead, Fielding chides Aziz for worrying too much about reputation and propriety. Aziz finally takes it for granted that Fielding and Adela were having an affair, and he states this directly. Fielding, startled, blows up at Aziz. Aziz is immediately pained at his own mistake and Fielding’s harsh words. Aziz agrees, reluctantly, to have dinner with Fielding that night.
Fielding runs into Turton at the post office. Turton demands Fielding’s presence at the Englishmen’s club at six that evening. Fielding stops by the club briefly to find that many new officials have replaced the old ones, but the tenor feels the same. Fielding likens this repetitive bigotry to an evil echo.
At dinner, Fielding tells Aziz that he is traveling to England briefly on official business. Aziz changes the subject to poetry. Fielding expresses hope that Aziz will be a religious poet, because though Fielding is an atheist, he thinks there is something important in religion that has not yet been celebrated—perhaps something in Hinduism. Aziz asks if Fielding will visit Adela in England. Fielding indifferently says that he probably will. At this, Aziz rises to leave. Fielding asks forgiveness for his harshness that morning, but Aziz rides away feeling depressed. He suspects that Fielding is going to England to marry Adela for her money. Aziz decides to travel with his children tomorrow, so that Fielding will be gone for England by the time he returns.
Summary: Chapter XXXII
Fielding’s ship journeys up to the Mediterranean and then docks at Venice. With a feeling of disloyalty, Fielding rediscovers his appreciation for form in architecture. Unlike the random temples and lumpy hills of India, the Venetian buildings appear in harmony with the earth. Fielding feels divided from his Indian friends because of their inability to appreciate form that has “escaped muddle.” On arriving in springtime England, Fielding feels a romantic sense reawakening in him.
Analysis: Chapters XXX–XXXII
A Passage to India might have ended after Aziz’s trial, but it continues for many more chapters, as Forster clears the ground for the new concerns of the novel. Many elements of the pre-trial community of Chandrapore break up in the aftermath of the trial. Some of the English officials, such as Ronny Heaslop and Major Callendar, are assigned to new posts in distant cities. Ronny and Adela break their engagement, and Adela returns to England. Mrs. Moore leaves for England and dies. Godbole takes a new position in a distant state. Finally, the two main characters who remain—Aziz and Fielding—undergo serious changes, of both setting and character.
Though Forster presents Adela as brave and well intentioned in testifying to Aziz’s innocence, the author by no means allows us to forget the negative consequences of her initial accusation. Aziz’s arrest reveals to Indians the deep hatred that the majority of English feel for them at all times. Aziz’s time in prison hardens him generally about personal relationships and teaches him to be cynical about the English in particular. Whereas the Aziz of the early parts of the novel is open to friendship with anyone, regardless of race, his openness is now prejudiced by his universal hatred for the English. Aziz feels less and less that friendship has the power to overcome cultural or racial differences.
The single positive effect of the trial is that the Hindu and Muslim communities in Chandrapore begin to come together and overcome their existing animosity. Heartened by these advances, Aziz makes a conscious effort to turn his mind toward a vision of a motherland. Uncharacteristically, he remains steadily focused on the goal of an independent India. He turns his poetry away from nostalgic invocations of Islam and toward a realistic suggestion of what India really is and could be. In these later chapters, then, Forster comes across as less invested in the idea that the British Empire is the best way to rule India. Through Aziz’s musings we get a prescient sense of a multicultural, independent India—an India that, in reality, finally formed twenty-five years after the publication of Forster’s novel.
These later chapters of the novel shift concern from the broader picture of English-Indian relations to a smaller focus on the breakup of Aziz and Fielding’s friendship. Even after the divisive Adela leaves India, Aziz and Fielding continue to grow apart. Aziz’s characteristic overactive imagination and distrust of evidence and reason continue to plague him when the rumor of Adela and Fielding’s affair reaches him. Even Fielding’s denial of the rumor does not dispel Aziz’s suspicion, as he already feels Fielding drifting away from him and becoming less trustworthy. Aziz’s Indian friends encourage him in his suspicions, as they include Fielding in their backlash against the English after the trial. Fielding, for his part, is gradually drawn—though perhaps unwillingly—back into the English circle, especially after the lieutenant-governor approves of Fielding’s actions during the trial.
Sexuality continues to remain a significant and constant barrier to the connection between Aziz and Fielding. When the two men discuss the rumored affair with Adela, Fielding is so shocked that Aziz believed the rumor that he calls Aziz a “little rotter” and immediately regrets it. Forster attributes the tense misunderstanding between the two men to the tension that arises when two people do not think of sex in the same way. Sex has always been a point of contention for the two men because Fielding resents Aziz’s crass attitude toward female beauty and sexuality. In the same way that sex troubles Aziz and Fielding, Adela’s painful thoughts about sexuality and her impending marriage to Ronny may be what cause her to imagine an assault in the Marabar Caves. Sexuality in A Passage to India is never a connecting force between characters, but rather a divisive one that sends the characters back into their shells.
In one of the only genuine and unstrained moments of their conversation over dinner in Chapter XXXII, Aziz and Fielding each foreshadow the events and concerns of Part III of the novel. Fielding, though an atheist, senses something in the Hindu religion that could be valuable, that is still “unsung.” Aziz then has a brief vision of himself living in a “Hindu jungle Native State.” As we soon see, Part III, which takes place two years later, features Aziz in a new position in Mau, just such a Hindu Indian-ruled jungle state. Indeed, Part III takes Hinduism as its backdrop, suggesting just what Fielding has implied—that in Hinduism may lie the mysterious remedy to cultural and individual conflict.
Fielding’s brief stop in Italy on the way to England, especially his admiration of Venetian architecture, continues Forster’s exploration of architecture as representative of the cultural differences between East and West. The Western architecture of Venice shows the triumph and beauty of logical form. Building and earth complement each other, and proportions relate correctly. In Forster’s eyes, Western architecture signifies everything that is positive about the logic, literalness, and reason of the West and Western thought. Fielding is uneasy about his appreciation of Venice because he knows that such appreciation—like the Englishmen’s salute of the tragic Ronny in Chapter XX—implicitly rejects India. From Fielding’s point of view, the worst, most “muddled” qualities of India are represented in its architecture, which to him is disproportionate, unpredictable, and formless.

Part III, Chapters XXXIII–XXXV
Summary: Chapter XXXIII
Two years later, and hundreds of miles west of Chandrapore, Aziz lives and works as physician to the Rajah in the Indian ruled, Hindu city of Mau. Professor Godbole also works there as minister of education.
That night at the royal palace, the Hindus of Mau celebrate the midnight birth of the god Krishna. Professor Godbole leads his small choir in singing hymns. On the wall, one of many multilingual signs proclaims “God si love” rather than “God is love.” The crowd is large, but calm. Confusion abounds, but the celebrants wear expressions of joy that make them all seem alike. The singers seem to become one with the universe and to love all men. Godbole straightens his pince nez and thinks momentarily of Mrs. Moore, and then of a wasp he once saw sitting on a stone. Godbole tries to incorporate the stone, along with Mrs. Moore and the wasp, into his vision of the oneness of the universe, but his conscious effort fails.
As midnight approaches, Godbole and the rest of the crowd begin to dance and shout. The aging and sick Rajah, the ruler of the state, arrives to witness the birth ceremony. At midnight, the crowd heralds the birth of Krishna, the embodiment of Infinite Love. After overseeing the birth with tears of joy, the Rajah is taken away to see Aziz, who tends to him. The crowd continues to celebrate for Krishna’s benefit with practical jokes, confused frolic, and playful games.
Summary: Chapter XXXIV
On the way to his house, Aziz runs into Godbole on the street. Godbole, still in religious ecstasy, manages to tell Aziz that Fielding has arrived at the European guest house. Fielding has come to Mau on official business, to check on education.
Aziz reflects happily on Godbole, who got Aziz his position at Mau. Aziz is pleased with Mau, where rivalries exist only between Hindu Brahmans and non Brahmans, not Muslims or Englishmen. Though Aziz is a Muslim himself, the Hindu people of Mau accept him because he is respectful.
Aziz does not want to see Fielding. He ceased to communicate with Fielding after reading half of a letter from Fielding in England that seemed to say Fielding had married Adela Quested. Aziz finally feels like a true Indian through his hatred of the English, and he is happy with his life away from English-ruled India. His children live with him and he writes poetry. Aziz’s poetry addresses the need to abolish the purdah and to create a new motherland. His life is only mildly disrupted by the local English political agent, Colonel Maggs, who has orders to watch Aziz as a suspected criminal.
Arriving home, Aziz finds a formal note from Fielding, forwarded from Godbole, announcing the arrival of himself, his wife, and his brother in law. The note, like all notes from visiting Englishmen, asks for specific amenities and advice. Aziz tears up the note.
Summary: Chapter XXXV
In Aziz’s garden lies part of a shrine in honor of a young Muslim saint who once freed all the prisoners in the local fort before the police beheaded him. Aziz has come to associate the saint with his own time in prison, and to appreciate the shrine.
The morning after receiving Fielding’s note, Aziz walks with his children to the other section of the shrine, which lies a short distance from their house. Aziz and the children wander through the small shrine and adjoining mosque, and then admire the view from the old fort. It is the rainy season and the water tanks are full, promising a good crop to come.
A line of prisoners walks nearby. The children ask the prisoners which of them will be freed that night during the traditional Hindu procession of the Chief God. The Chief God moves through town, stops at the jail, and pardons one prisoner. The low caste prisoners politely discuss the matter with Aziz’s family. The prison guard asks Aziz about the Rajah’s health. Aziz says that the Rajah’s condition has been improving, though in reality the Rajah died the night before. Aziz is to keep the Rajah’s death a secret until the -festivities end.
Aziz’s children notice that Fielding and his brother in law are climbing up the ridge to the shrine. The two men enter the shrine, but a swarm of bees chases them out. Fielding’s brother in law is stung, and Aziz walks over to attend to the wound. Fielding, in an unfriendly tone of voice, asks Aziz why he never responded to any of his letters. Suddenly, heavy rain begins to fall, and they hurry down to the road to Fielding’s carriage.
Aziz helps the others into the carriage, referring to Fielding’s brother-in-law as “Mr. Quested.” Fielding is shocked, for he married Mrs. Moore’s daughter, Stella, not Adela Quested—thus the brother-in-law is Mr. Moore. Aziz is suddenly embarrassed and elated. Fielding realizes the mistake that has caused Aziz’s unfriendliness. With little sympathy, Fielding blames the mix-up on Mahmoud Ali, who knew that Fielding married Stella. Fielding explains that Mahmoud Ali even referred to her as “Heaslop’s sister” in a letter. The name Heaslop infuriates Aziz, who is already angry at the realization of his mistake.
Aziz asks Fielding not to visit him while in Mau. Aziz explains that he still feels almost as betrayed as if Fielding had actually married his enemy and taken what should have been his reparation money. On the other hand, Aziz forgives Mahmoud Ali all things because Mahmoud Ali loved him. Aziz gathers his children around him and states in Urdu that he wishes no Englishman or Englishwoman to be his friend. Aziz returns home feeling excited.
Analysis: Chapters XXXIII–XXXV
Part III, like Parts I and II, begins with an introductory chapter that sets the tone of the section. This time, Forster describes in detail the Hindu celebration of Krishna’s birth at the royal palace at Mau. The celebration is disorderly, mirroring the “muddle” of India itself throughout of the novel: multiple musicians play different songs, not enough seats are available, and a sign on the wall confusingly proclaims, “God si Love.” Yet the mystical traditions of the ceremony transform the muddle into mystery. The overlarge crowd is strangely calm and happy, as each person surrenders himself into the moment. The Hindu celebration, which provides the backdrop for all of Part III, offers a vision of individualism merged into a complete collectivity—a dynamic in which all living things are one with love and no hierarchies exist.
During the birth ceremony, Godbole thinks briefly of Mrs. Moore and a wasp. The wasp, which appears throughout A Passage to India, represents the fact that even the lowliest creatures are still incorporated into the Hindu vision of the oneness of the universe. The wasp in Chapter XXXIII recalls Mrs. Moore’s gentle appreciation of the wasp in her bedroom on the night she meets Aziz in the mosque in Chapter III. Mrs. Moore’s contemplation of the wasp suggests that she was open to the collectivity of Hinduism. Likewise, Godbole’s vision of Mrs. Moore and the wasp, suggests that the professor, as a Hindu, has sensed the Englishwoman’s sympathy with Hinduism. Indeed, the vision of the mystical Mrs. Moore, along with Godbole and the Hindu religion, serves as a backdrop for Part III of the novel.
In the two years that have passed between the end of Part II and the beginning of Part III, Aziz and Fielding’s relationship has completely fallen apart. Aziz appears mostly at fault for this quarrel, as he has mistakenly assumed that Fielding married Adela Quested, failing to take the time to check the truth of his assumption. Impetuously, Aziz has completely shut himself off from Fielding. Forster implies that Aziz’s overactive imagination and suspicion—though they once served him well—have gotten the better of him, as he has relied upon them too much. Fielding, meanwhile, appears to have become the stereotypical Englishman in India. His note from the guesthouse is somewhat demanding of Aziz; later, when Fielding and Aziz meet at the shrine, the Englishman continues to ask for comforts and privileges during his visit.
Though two years have passed since Part II, we see that Aziz is still extremely bitter about his arrest—and that it still plagues his reputation in British India. However, Forster also suggests, through a series of images of prisoners being freed, that Aziz’s bitterness soon may be partially relieved. Chapter XXXV opens with the story of a Muslim saint whose great deed was to free all the prisoners in the old fort at Mau, and who died while doing so. When Aziz takes his children to visit part of the shrine to this saint, they pass a row of prisoners, one of whom will be freed during the Hindu procession of the Chief God that evening. These optimistic images in the chapter suggest that, although Aziz still identifies himself with prisoners, he too will soon be freed of his symbolic prison—his bitterness about Adela’s accusation.
The emphasis on rebirth in Part III reinforces and deepens this sense of optimism. The Hindu celebration that provides the backdrop of the section is a celebration of the birth of the god Krishna. Furthermore, Part III takes place at the beginning of the rainy season, the time after the blistering hot season that brings extraordinary rains to nurture new crops. Aziz himself can be seen as a manifestation of rebirth, as his children are now living with him, and he seems to be focused on their education and upbringing. All of Aziz’s hopes for a new India are invested in this younger generation.
Aziz, in a moment that epitomizes his character, feels torn between several different emotions upon learning that Fielding has actually married Stella Moore, not Adela Quested. In quick succession, Aziz feels embarrassed, then elated, then angry and prideful, then excited. Aziz’s pride in himself and his behavior battle with his relief and his affection for Fielding; his anger at the name “Ronny Heaslop” battles with his love for the name “Mrs. Moore.” Typically, Aziz intends for Fielding to take his words not literally, but as a performance of the emotions behind them. Indeed, though Aziz exhorts Fielding not to visit him while in Mau, several hours later, in the next chapter, Aziz himself rides over to the guesthouse and is disappointed to find that Fielding is not in. This confrontation between literal and figurative meaning that has been at the heart of the conflicts in the novel thus far continues to play a part here in the final chapters of the novel.

Part III, Chapters XXXVI–XXXVII
Summary: Chapter XXXVI
At sundown that day, Aziz remembers that he promised to send ointment over to the guesthouse to treat Fielding’s brother in law’s bee stings. Aziz procures some of Mohammed Latif’s ointment and decides to take it over himself, as an excuse for a ride.
Outside, the Procession of the God is about to begin. The two claimants to the Rajah’s throne, sensing that the Rajah might be dead, have arrived at the palace, but they make no moves toward the throne while the festival continues. Aziz runs into Godbole on the street and tells the professor the news about Fielding’s wife. Godbole, however, has known all along that Fielding married Stella Moore, not Adela Quested. Aziz refrains from getting angry with Godbole out of respect for the festival time.
Riding toward the guesthouse, Aziz becomes cynical when he notices the English visitors out in the guesthouse boat watching the Hindu festival from afar. Aziz resents this sightseeing, which he views as really a form of ruling or patrolling India. Aziz rides on to the guesthouse, which is guarded only by a sleeping sentry. He lets himself in and snoops around the rooms, finally finding and reading a letter from Heaslop to Fielding and a letter from Adela to Stella. Aziz resents the intimate tone of the letters.
Frustrated, Aziz strikes the piano in front of him. Hearing the noise, Ralph Moore comes in, startled. Aziz recovers from his surprise and briskly asks to see the Englishman’s bee stings. Ralph retreats from Aziz, saying that Aziz’s hands are unkind. Ralph asks why Aziz is treating him and the other English visitors so cruelly. Aziz mentions Adela, but the procession outside nears the jail, and an outburst of sorrow from the crowd distracts them both.
Aziz decides to leave and shakes Ralph’s hand absentmindedly. Aziz suddenly senses that Ralph is no longer afraid of him. Aziz asks Ralph if he can always tell when a stranger is his friend. Ralph says yes, he can. Aziz pronounces Ralph an Oriental, then shivers, remembering that he once said those exact words to Mrs. Moore in the mosque. Aziz is wary that a cycle is beginning again—the friendship of the mosque, followed by the horror of the caves. Aziz impulsively offers to take Ralph out on the water for a few minutes.
Once on the water, Aziz’s old hospitality returns, and he begins to speak colorfully about the Hindu celebration. Ralph points out what looks like the Rajah floating on the water. Aziz admits that he does not know what it is, though he suspects it is the image of the old Rajah, which can be seen from only one point on the water. Aziz suddenly feels more like the visitor than the guide.
Ralph asks Aziz to row to a vantage point closer to the Procession of the God, in which rockets and guns are being shot off. Aziz is afraid of disturbing the celebration, and indeed, Godbole catches sight of them and begins to wave his arms wildly. Suddenly, Aziz’s boat collides with Fielding’s boat. Stella throws herself toward Fielding, and then forward toward Aziz. All four of them fall into the warm, shallow water, just as the Hindu festival, in the water nearby, reaches its climax. Their bodies, the props of the Hindu ceremony, Ronny’s and Adela’s letters, and the oars all swirl together.
Summary: Chapter XXXVII
After the boating accident, Aziz and Fielding suddenly revert to their old friendship. They go for a ride in the jungles around Mau before Fielding’s departure. They know they will never see each other again.
During the ride, Aziz gives Fielding a letter for Adela, thanking her for her brave action at the trial. Fielding questions Aziz about Hinduism, reluctantly admitting that Stella and Ralph appear strangely drawn to the religion and to Mau. Aziz, impatient with talk of Hinduism, changes the subject to politics. Aziz and Fielding differ more politically than ever before, though they speak about their opinions with trust. Fielding now believes that the Empire is necessary, and he cares less about how polite it is. Aziz, however, hates the Empire. He predicts that India will become its own nation in the next generation, at which time he and Fielding might finally be friends. The two men embrace, and Fielding asks why they cannot be friends now, as they both seem to want it. But the land and sky themselves seem to arise between Fielding and Aziz, declaring, “No, not yet.”
Analysis: Chapters XXXVI–XXXVII
Aziz’s interaction with Ralph Moore provides the catalyst for Aziz and Fielding to restore their old friendship. Throughout their interaction, the two men display a remarkable level of intuition regarding the sentiment and intent behind each other’s words. Aziz is initially callous and dismissive of Ralph, but then Ralph confronts this coldness by accusing Aziz of having unkind hands. Ralph senses that Aziz’s resentment is payback for the Indian’s own mistreatment at the hands of the English. Ralph’s intuition surprises Aziz and reminds him of Mrs. Moore. When Aziz lets his guard down a moment later, Ralph senses that Aziz is relenting. Aziz knows that Ralph is sympathetic to him, sensitive and aware of his feelings much as Mrs. Moore was. Indeed, in an uncanny moment, Aziz uses the same words he used toward Mrs. Moore in the mosque, pronouncing Ralph an Oriental. Aziz is aware that his words start a cycle over again, and he is wary of the fear and accusation that may again follow this initial friendliness. Yet Forster presents this cycle as potentially a new version of the old cycle, an improvement that will promote greater understanding and not necessarily end in disaster. Ralph Moore is not a carbon copy of Mrs. Moore, but a younger generation; Aziz lets his guard down not out of naïve goodwill, but conscious choice.
Almost as remarkable as the initial conciliation between Aziz and Ralph Moore is their sightseeing boat trip. Aziz initially expresses bitterness toward Fielding and his wife as typical English people who seek to rule India under the guise of exploring India. Yet just several minutes later, Aziz, in characteristically unpredictable fashion, invites Ralph to sightsee under his guidance, just as he invited Mrs. Moore and Adela to see the Marabar Caves under his guidance. In both cases, Aziz knows little about the territory he shows his visitors. The important difference between Mau and Marabar, however, is that Ralph is an active sightseer: he spots the mysterious and elusive image of the old Rajah—an image that Aziz himself has never seen before. For once, Aziz drops his guise of all-knowing guide, allowing himself to be a visitor and spectator in his own country. In this depiction Forster suggests that the only sound approach to India is for both the English and Indians to be active lookers and to accept that no single person owns the knowledge of the land.
While the Hindu festival of Krishna serves as one backdrop to Part III, the elderly Rajah’s death serves as the secondary backdrop. As the Rajah’s personal physician, Aziz knows of the leader’s death; though Aziz attempts to keep it secret until after the festival, the rest of the royalty of Mau has begun to suspect it. The beginning of Chapter XXXVI informs us that the two claimants to the throne have gathered at the palace but will make no move toward the throne until the festival is over. The Rajah’s death thus suggests a general turning point, a changing of rulers. The patient and selfless approach of the two claimants to the throne suggest that politics is most humane when subordinated to a benevolent, religious worldview. In the context of Aziz and Fielding’s discussion of India’s future, the changing of rulers in Mau portends a general change in India and suggests an ideal means of change.
If Forster is critical of the British in Part I and the first half of Part II, and critical of Indians in the second half of Part II, in Part III he suggests that Hinduism holds the key by which all inhabitants of India might improve themselves and their country. In Part III, the larger concern of A Passage to India, centering on India’s dilemma and future, moves beyond the personal level on which the novel’s drama has played out—the friendship between Fielding and Aziz. For we see in Chapter XXXVII that neither Fielding nor Aziz has any patience for Hinduism. Fielding is still an atheist, and he resents the mysticism of his wife and brother-in-law. Aziz, though now more affectionate with Hindus, still ignores their practices and considers them silly and provincial. Stella and Ralph Moore, like their mother before them, are the characters most open to and interested in Hinduism. Through these two, the pain of Marabar is erased and potentially replaced by a collective vision. First, Ralph Moore connects with Aziz, and then Stella Moore—through her lunge towards him during the boating accident—symbolically reaches out to Aziz as well. It is through the Moores, and not Aziz and Fielding, that Forster expresses optimism in Part III.
Accordingly, the novel’s final scene—featuring only Aziz and Fielding—betrays a realistic pessimism that is not present in the rest of Part III. Aziz and Fielding are happily back to their old selves, but these old selves suffer from drawbacks, new and old. Fielding has become more of a typical Englishman, more supportive of the British Empire than respectful of individual interactions. Likewise, Aziz’s affectionate side has given way somewhat to a hardened pride in himself and his country.
The final message of A Passage to India is that though Aziz and Fielding want to be friends, both their personal histories and historical circumstances—as embodied by the Indian landscape—prevent their friendship. Forster’s message has shifted throughout the course of the novel. At the start of the novel, characters such as Fielding and Aziz are evidence of Forster’s faith in liberal humanism—the belief that with goodwill, intelligence, and respect, all individuals can connect and make a successful world. Yet here in the final scenes, the natural landscape of India itself seems to rise up and divide Aziz and Fielding from each other. Forster suggests that though men may be well intentioned, outside circumstances such as cultural difference, natural environment, and the interference of others can conspire to prevent their union. The final lines are pessimistic in this regard, but Forster does ultimately leave open the possibility that cross-cultural friendship, though elusive at the present moment, may be viable in the future. He implies that the combination of a respect for people as individuals and a belief in sameness and the unity of man—though sometimes a fearful notion, as Mrs. Moore has seen in the Marabar Caves—is the path most likely to lead to the openness and understanding that Aziz and Fielding seek.

Plot Overview
TWO ENGLISHWOMEN, THE YOUNG Miss Adela Quested and the elderly Mrs. Moore, travel to India. Adela expects to become engaged to Mrs. Moore’s son, Ronny, a British magistrate in the Indian city of Chandrapore. Adela and Mrs. Moore each hope to see the real India during their visit, rather than cultural institutions imported by the British.
At the same time, Aziz, a young Muslim doctor in India, is increasingly frustrated by the poor treatment he receives at the hands of the English. Aziz is especially annoyed with Major Callendar, the civil surgeon, who has a tendency to summon Aziz for frivolous reasons in the middle of dinner. Aziz and two of his educated friends, Hamidullah and Mahmoud Ali, hold a lively conversation about whether or not an Indian can be friends with an Englishman in India. That night, Mrs. Moore and Aziz happen to run into each other while exploring a local mosque, and the two become friendly. Aziz is moved and surprised that an English person would treat him like a friend.
Mr. Turton, the collector who governs Chandrapore, hosts a party so that Adela and Mrs. Moore may have the opportunity to meet some of the more prominent and wealthy Indians in the city. At the event, which proves to be rather awkward, Adela meets Cyril Fielding, the principal of the government college in Chandrapore. Fielding, impressed with Adela’s open friendliness to the Indians, invites her and Mrs. Moore to tea with him and the Hindu professor Godbole. At Adela’s request, Fielding invites Aziz to tea as well.
At the tea, Aziz and Fielding immediately become friendly, and the afternoon is overwhelmingly pleasant until Ronny Heaslop arrives and rudely interrupts the party. Later that evening, Adela tells Ronny that she has decided not to marry him. But that night, the two are in a car accident together, and the excitement of the event causes Adela to change her mind about the marriage.
Not long afterward, Aziz organizes an expedition to the nearby Marabar Caves for those who attended Fielding’s tea. Fielding and Professor Godbole miss the train to Marabar, so Aziz continues on alone with the two ladies, Adela and Mrs. Moore. Inside one of the caves, Mrs. Moore is unnerved by the enclosed space, which is crowded with Aziz’s retinue, and by the uncanny echo that seems to translate every sound she makes into the noise “boum.”
Aziz, Adela, and a guide go on to the higher caves while Mrs. Moore waits below. Adela, suddenly realizing that she does not love Ronny, asks Aziz whether he has more than one wife—a question he considers offensive. Aziz storms off into a cave, and when he returns, Adela is gone. Aziz scolds the guide for losing Adela, and the guide runs away. Aziz finds Adela’s broken field glasses and heads down the hill. Back at the picnic site, Aziz finds Fielding waiting for him. Aziz is unconcerned to learn that Adela has hastily taken a car back to Chandrapore, as he is overjoyed to see Fielding. Back in Chandrapore, however, Aziz is unexpectedly arrested. He is charged with attempting to rape Adela Quested while she was in the caves, a charge based on a claim Adela herself has made.
Fielding, believing Aziz to be innocent, angers all of British India by joining the Indians in Aziz’s defense. In the weeks before the trial, the racial tensions between the Indians and the English flare up considerably. Mrs. Moore is distracted and miserable because of her memory of the echo in the cave and because of her impatience with the upcoming trial. Adela is emotional and ill; she too seems to suffer from an echo in her mind. Ronny is fed up with Mrs. Moore’s lack of support for Adela, and it is agreed that Mrs. Moore will return to England earlier than planned. Mrs. Moore dies on the voyage back to England, but not before she realizes that there is no “real India”—but rather a complex multitude of different Indias.
At Aziz’s trial, Adela, under oath, is questioned about what happened in the caves. Shockingly, she declares that she has made a mistake: Aziz is not the person or thing that attacked her in the cave. Aziz is set free, and Fielding escorts Adela to the Government College, where she spends the next several weeks. Fielding begins to respect Adela, recognizing her bravery in standing against her peers to pronounce Aziz innocent. Ronny breaks off his engagement to Adela, and she returns to England.
Aziz, however, is angry that Fielding would befriend Adela after she nearly ruined Aziz’s life, and the friendship between the two men suffers as a consequence. Then Fielding sails for a visit to England. Aziz declares that he is done with the English and that he intends to move to a place where he will not have to encounter them.
Two years later, Aziz has become the chief doctor to the Rajah of Mau, a Hindu region several hundred miles from Chandrapore. He has heard that Fielding married Adela shortly after returning to England. Aziz now virulently hates all English people. One day, walking through an old temple with his three children, he encounters Fielding and his brother in law. Aziz is surprised to learn that the brother-in-law’s name is Ralph Moore; it turns out that Fielding married not Adela Quested, but Stella Moore, Mrs. Moore’s daughter from her second marriage.
Aziz befriends Ralph. After he accidentally runs his rowboat into Fielding’s, Aziz renews his friendship with Fielding as well. The two men go for a final ride together before Fielding leaves, during which Aziz tells Fielding that once the English are out of India, the two will be able to be friends. Fielding asks why they cannot be friends now, when they both want to be, but the sky and the earth seem to say “No, not yet. . . . No, not there.”

Study Questions & Essay Topics
Study Questions
1. What do Adela and Mrs. Moore hope to get out of their visit to India? Do they succeed?
Answer for Study Question #1
2. What causes Adela’s breakdown? Why does she accuse Aziz? What qualities enable her to admit the truth at the trial?
Answer for Study Question #2
3. What purpose does Part III, “Temple,” play in A Passage to India?
Answer for Study Question #3
Suggested Essay Topics
1. What is Forster’s primary critique of the British in India? What does he appear to think of the Empire in general?
2. Evaluate the role of negation in the novel. Look for instances of the word “nothing,” descriptions that use lack or negativity, and plot points in which “nothing” happens, though characters think something does happen. What does negation signify and how is it used?
3. What is the role of nature in A Passage to India?
4. What part does sexuality play in the novel? Consider any differences of opinion about sexuality between Fielding and Aziz and between Ronny and Adela.
5. Compare Forster’s depiction of the English in Chandrapore with his depiction of Aziz’s Indian community. Do the two groups have any similarities? Does Forster portray one group more sympathetically?

Themes, Motifs & Symbols
Themes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.
The Difficulty of English-Indian Friendship
A Passage to India begins and ends by posing the question of whether it is possible for an Englishman and an Indian to ever be friends, at least within the context of British colonialism. Forster uses this question as a framework to explore the general issue of Britain’s political control of India on a more personal level, through the friendship between Aziz and Fielding. At the beginning of the novel, Aziz is scornful of the English, wishing only to consider them comically or ignore them completely. Yet the intuitive connection Aziz feels with Mrs. Moore in the mosque opens him to the possibility of friendship with Fielding. Through the first half of the novel, Fielding and Aziz represent a positive model of liberal humanism: Forster suggests that British rule in India could be successful and respectful if only English and Indians treated each other as Fielding and Aziz treat each other—as worthy individuals who connect through frankness, intelligence, and good will.
Yet in the aftermath of the novel’s climax—Adela’s accusation that Aziz attempted to assault her and her subsequent disavowal of this accusation at the trial—Aziz and Fielding’s friendship falls apart. The strains on their relationship are external in nature, as Aziz and Fielding both suffer from the tendencies of their cultures. Aziz tends to let his imagination run away with him and to let suspicion harden into a grudge. Fielding suffers from an English literalism and rationalism that blind him to Aziz’s true feelings and make Fielding too stilted to reach out to Aziz through conversations or letters. Furthermore, their respective Indian and English communities pull them apart through their mutual stereotyping. As we see at the end of the novel, even the landscape of India seems to oppress their friendship. Forster’s final vision of the possibility of English-Indian friendship is a pessimistic one, yet it is qualified by the possibility of friendship on English soil, or after the liberation of India. As the landscape itself seems to imply at the end of the novel, such a friendship may be possible eventually, but “not yet.”
The Unity of All Living Things
Though the main characters of A Passage to India are generally Christian or Muslim, Hinduism also plays a large thematic role in the novel. The aspect of Hinduism with which Forster is particularly concerned is the religion’s ideal of all living things, from the lowliest to the highest, united in love as one. This vision of the universe appears to offer redemption to India through mysticism, as individual differences disappear into a peaceful collectivity that does not recognize hierarchies. Individual blame and intrigue is forgone in favor of attention to higher, spiritual matters. Professor Godbole, the most visible Hindu in the novel, is Forster’s mouthpiece for this idea of the unity of all living things. Godbole alone remains aloof from the drama of the plot, refraining from taking sides by recognizing that all are implicated in the evil of Marabar. Mrs. Moore, also, shows openness to this aspect of Hinduism. Though she is a Christian, her experience of India has made her dissatisfied with what she perceives as the smallness of Christianity. Mrs. Moore appears to feel a great sense of connection with all living creatures, as evidenced by her respect for the wasp in her bedroom.
Yet, through Mrs. Moore, Forster also shows that the vision of the oneness of all living things can be terrifying. As we see in Mrs. Moore’s experience with the echo that negates everything into “boum” in Marabar, such oneness provides unity but also makes all elements of the universe one and the same—a realization that, it is implied, ultimately kills Mrs. Moore. Godbole is not troubled by the idea that negation is an inevitable result when all things come together as one. Mrs. Moore, however, loses interest in the world of relationships after envisioning this lack of distinctions as a horror. Moreover, though Forster generally endorses the Hindu idea of the oneness of all living things, he also suggests that there may be inherent problems with it. Even Godbole, for example, seems to recognize that something—if only a stone—must be left out of the vision of oneness if the vision is to cohere. This problem of exclusion is, in a sense, merely another manifestation of the individual difference and hierarchy that Hinduism promises to overcome.
The “Muddle” of India
Forster takes great care to strike a distinction between the ideas of “muddle” and “mystery” in A Passage to India. “Muddle” has connotations of dangerous and disorienting disorder, whereas “mystery” suggests a mystical, orderly plan by a spiritual force that is greater than man. Fielding, who acts as Forster’s primary mouthpiece in the novel, admits that India is a “muddle,” while figures such as Mrs. Moore and Godbole view India as a mystery. The muddle that is India in the novel appears to work from the ground up: the very landscape and architecture of the countryside is formless, and the natural life of plants and animals defies identification. This muddled quality to the environment is mirrored in the makeup of India’s native population, which is mixed into a muddle of different religious, ethnic, linguistic, and regional groups.
The muddle of India disorients Adela the most; indeed, the events at the Marabar Caves that trouble her so much can be seen as a manifestation of this muddle. By the end of the novel, we are still not sure what actually has happened in the caves. Forster suggests that Adela’s feelings about Ronny become externalized and muddled in the caves, and that she suddenly experiences these feelings as something outside of her. The muddle of India also affects Aziz and Fielding’s friendship, as their good intentions are derailed by the chaos of cross-cultural signals.
Though Forster is sympathetic to India and Indians in the novel, his overwhelming depiction of India as a muddle matches the manner in which many Western writers of his day treated the East in their works. As the noted critic Edward Said has pointed out, these authors’ “orientalizing” of the East made Western logic and capability appear self-evident, and, by extension, portrayed the West’s domination of the East as reasonable or even necessary.
The Negligence of British Colonial Government
Though A Passage to India is in many ways a highly symbolic, or even mystical, text, it also aims to be a realistic documentation of the attitudes of British colonial officials in India. Forster spends large sections of the novel characterizing different typical attitudes the English hold toward the Indians whom they control. Forster’s satire is most harsh toward Englishwomen, whom the author depicts as overwhelmingly racist, self-righteous, and viciously condescending to the native population. Some of the Englishmen in the novel are as nasty as the women, but Forster more often identifies Englishmen as men who, though condescending and unable to relate to Indians on an individual level, are largely well-meaning and invested in their jobs. For all Forster’s criticism of the British manner of governing India, however, he does not appear to question the right of the British Empire to rule India. He suggests that the British would be well served by becoming kinder and more sympathetic to the Indians with whom they live, but he does not suggest that the British should abandon India outright. Even this lesser critique is never overtly stated in the novel, but implied through biting satire.
Motifs
Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes.
The Echo
The echo begins at the Marabar Caves: first Mrs. Moore and then Adela hear the echo and are haunted by it in the weeks to come. The echo’s sound is “boum”—a sound it returns regardless of what noise or utterance is originally made. This negation of difference embodies the frightening flip side of the seemingly positive Hindu vision of the oneness and unity of all living things. If all people and things become the same thing, then no distinction can be made between good and evil. No value system can exist. The echo plagues Mrs. Moore until her death, causing her to abandon her beliefs and cease to care about human relationships. Adela, however, ultimately escapes the echo by using its message of impersonality to help her realize Aziz’s innocence.
Eastern and Western Architecture
Forster spends time detailing both Eastern and Western architecture in A Passage to India. Three architectural structures—though one is naturally occurring—provide the outline for the book’s three sections, “Mosque,” “Caves,” and “Temple.” Forster presents the aesthetics of Eastern and Western structures as indicative of the differences of the respective cultures as a whole. In India, architecture is confused and formless: interiors blend into exterior gardens, earth and buildings compete with each other, and structures appear unfinished or drab. As such, Indian architecture mirrors the muddle of India itself and what Forster sees as the Indians’ characteristic inattention to form and logic. Occasionally, however, Forster takes a positive view of Indian architecture. The mosque in Part I and temple in Part III represent the promise of Indian openness, mysticism, and friendship. Western architecture, meanwhile, is described during Fielding’s stop in Venice on his way to England. Venice’s structures, which Fielding sees as representative of Western architecture in general, honor form and proportion and complement the earth on which they are built. Fielding reads in this architecture the self-evident correctness of Western reason—an order that, he laments, his Indian friends would not recognize or appreciate.

Godbole’s Song
At the end of Fielding’s tea party, Godbole sings for the English visitors a Hindu song, in which a milkmaid pleads for God to come to her or to her people. The song’s refrain of “Come! come” recurs throughout A Passage to India, mirroring the appeal for the entire country of salvation from something greater than itself. After the song, Godbole admits that God never comes to the milkmaid. The song greatly disheartens Mrs. Moore, setting the stage for her later spiritual apathy, her simultaneous awareness of a spiritual presence and lack of confidence in spiritualism as a redeeming force. Godbole seemingly intends his song as a message or lesson that recognition of the potential existence of a God figure can bring the world together and erode differences—after all, Godbole himself sings the part of a young milkmaid. Forster uses the refrain of Godbole’s song, “Come! come,” to suggest that India’s redemption is yet to come.
Symbols
Symbols are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.
The Marabar Caves
The Marabar Caves represent all that is alien about nature. The caves are older than anything else on the earth and embody nothingness and emptiness—a literal void in the earth. They defy both English and Indians to act as guides to them, and their strange beauty and menace unsettles visitors. The caves’ alien quality also has the power to make visitors such as Mrs. Moore and Adela confront parts of themselves or the universe that they have not previously recognized. The all-reducing echo of the caves causes Mrs. Moore to see the darker side of her spirituality—a waning commitment to the world of relationships and a growing ambivalence about God. Adela confronts the shame and embarrassment of her realization that she and Ronny are not actually attracted to each other, and that she might be attracted to no one. In this sense, the caves both destroy meaning, in reducing all utterances to the same sound, and expose or narrate the unspeakable, the aspects of the universe that the caves’ visitors have not yet considered.
The Green Bird
Just after Adela and Ronny agree for the first time, in Chapter VII, to break off their engagement, they notice a green bird sitting in the tree above them. Neither of them can positively identify the bird. For Adela, the bird symbolizes the unidentifiable quality of all of India: just when she thinks she can understand any aspect of India, that aspect changes or disappears. In this sense, the green bird symbolizes the muddle of India. In another capacity, the bird points to a different tension between the English and Indians. The English are obsessed with knowledge, literalness, and naming, and they use these tools as a means of gaining and maintaining power. The Indians, in contrast, are more attentive to nuance, undertone, and the emotions behind words. While the English insist on labeling things, the Indians recognize that labels can blind one to important details and differences. The unidentifiable green bird suggests the incompatibility of the English obsession with classification and order with the shifting quality of India itself—the land is, in fact, a “hundred Indias” that defy labeling and understanding.
The Wasp
The wasp appears several times in A Passage to India, usually in conjunction with the Hindu vision of the oneness of all living things. The wasp is usually depicted as the lowest creature the Hindus incorporate into their vision of universal unity. Mrs. Moore is closely associated with the wasp, as she finds one in her room and is gently appreciative of it. Her peaceful regard for the wasp signifies her own openness to the Hindu idea of collectivity, and to the mysticism and indefinable quality of India in general. However, as the wasp is the lowest creature that the Hindus visualize, it also represents the limits of the Hindu vision. The vision is not a panacea, but merely a possibility for unity and understanding in India.

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27. A House for Mr.Biswas - by V. S. Naipaul
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Summary
Ever since his birth, Mr. Biswas - the main protagonist of V.S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas - never has an opportunity to develop a sense of self. He is always finding himself in situations that make him feel powerless. Due to this powerlessness he is always in situations where he is having people tell him what to do. He never has any personal power. Mr. Biswas realizes that with money and possessions a person tends to have more power in society. Indeed, for Mr. Biswas owning a house serves as a symbol which illustrates his ability to realize a self-identity and gain personal power to take control of his life. Mr. Biswas is caught in the grasp of feudalism. He is trapped in the rigid class structure that controls his society. He is always listening to others and never makes decisions about his own life or well-being. Mr. Biswas is a “ wanderer with no place he could call his own, with no family except that which he was to attempt to create out of the engulfing world of the Tulsis” (40). Hanuman House is the paradigm of the feudal society. It has a hierarchy and very strict social structure. The Gods, Seth , and Mrs. Tulsi serve as the hierarchy and rulers of Hanuman House. Everyone else is just another face in the mob of people who work to benefit the Tulsi’s while sacrificing their own well-being. Mr. Biswas doesn’t own anything that has much value. He has enough clothes to hang on a nail. By owning a house Mr. Biswas gains personal power - something that he never has- which allowed him to feel that he was important. He was able to live by his own rules , support his family, and do things for his benefit and not for the benefit of others. Mr. Biswas is now able to truly live by his motto: “ paddle your own canoe” (107). This new found personal power allows Mr. Biswas to live a fulfilling life that he can be proud of. He never has to take orders from anyone ever again because he is the master of himself. The episode with the dollhouse is a symbolic of Mr. Biswas’ feeling of owning his own house. In Hanuman House everyone is supposed to be equal. Equality is a virtue in the Tulsi household. Nobody is supposed to challenge this idea because it is seen as disrespect to the Tulsi family. Mr. Biswas’ purchase of the dollhouse for his daughter , Savi, manifests his true feelings and aspirations. He wants the best for his family. This dollhouse is the epitome of his dream house. This house represents what he wants to own for himself. By owning this house Mr. Biswas is able to challenge the ideas of this feudal society. He conquers all of the obstacles that are placed in front of him by this rigid society. When Shama crushes the house into a million pieces this is a symbol of all of the obstacles that Mr. Biswas comes across. He is not going to let this dream of his be crushed because it isn’t the way which is accepted in this society. He does what he wants to do and doesn’t care what is going to be said about him.

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29. R. K. Narayan: The Guide (1958)
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R[asipuram] K[rishnaswamy] Narayan (1906-2001 is unusual among Indian authors writing in English in that he has stayed contentedly in his home country, venturing abroad only rarely. He rarely addresses political issues or tries to explore the cutting edge of fiction. He is a traditional teller of tales, a creator of realist fiction which is often gentle, humorous, and warm rather than hard-hitting or profound. Almost all of his writings are set in the fictional city of Malgudi, and are narrowly focused on the lives of relatively humble individuals, neither extremely poor nor very rich.
The Guideis one of his most interesting books, which begins as a comic look at the life of a rogue, but evolves into something quite different. It should be noted that Narayan is not a devout Hindu, and has accused Westerners of wrongly supposing that all Indians are deeply spiritual beings; but it is also true that he was deeply impressed by some experiences he had with a medium after the sudden death of his young wife (described movingly in The English Teacher (1945).
Narayan has stated that the incident of the reluctant holy man was based on a real event which he read about in the newspaper.
Chapter One
Why do you think Narayan chooses such an unusual way to introduce us to Raju? An anna is a very small coin. A maharaja is a traditional Indian prince. After the barber announces that Raju looks like a maharaja, the narrative takes an abrupt turn into the past. The incident of the villager who has come to consult with him in the next paragraph happened long ago.
Narayan further complicates the narrative flow by glancing forward to a time when he will tell this villager, named Velan, his life story, which brings him to Rosie, who will be introduced into the novel later. He then abruptly springs back into the distant past to briefly tell the story of his childhood and then return to Velan and his problem. Note the blank lines he has inserted in the narrative to mark the points at which the setting changes.
Explain the title of the novel. Traditional Indian temple dancers were dedicated to dancing for the gods, particularly Krishna. However, they also traditionally supported themselves through prostitution, and temple-dancing was eventually suppressed. Modern "classical dancers" are often highly respectable women who practice the art out of devotion to dance rather than religion. Look for passages in the novel which portray both negative and positive images of such dancers. "Betel leaf" is the mild stimulant chewed by many Indians and wrongly called "betel nut" because it is often served wrapped around an areca nut. "Parched gram" is roasted lentils, a staple in India. The pyol is a sort of front stoop where Indians often visit with neighbors and watch the world going by. Tamil is one of the many important languages of India, especially common in the south. Narayan has depicted himself as a poor student and a rebellious son, a self-portrait he has repeated over and over from Swami and Friends (1935) forward. What attracts the boy Raju more than his lessons?
The story told about the Buddha is one of the most common lessons attributed to him; but would not necessarily be widely known by Indians, few of whom are Buddhists. What is its meaning? How do you think Raju is able to predict what Velan will say when he begins discussing his troubles? Note that Velan wants to treat Raju as a saint: a theme that will recur later in the novel. Why does Raju hope the girl is uninteresting? Jewelry is a necessity for any woman in India: a form of bank account and a sign of respectability. Thefts of such jewelry are quite rare. Idli are small steamed cakes of ground rice and fermented lentils, usually eaten for breakfast. Raju is posing as a holy man. How good is he at it?
Another flashback returns us to his childhood for a few pages. Fermented lime-pickle, intensely sour, is a favorite Indian condiment, or chutney. What do we learn about his character from this story? Can you see any qualities that he may have inherited from his father? The fact that he never heard the end of the story about Devaka may foreshadow the end of his own story. Devaka was the grandfather of the god Krishna on his mother's side.
"Transmigration" means reincarnation, another life. How useful is Raju's message to Velan?
Chapter Two
We now return to Raju's childhood. Recitation aloud is the traditional method of education. What kind of school does he attend? Jaggery is a brown crystalline sweetener made from the sap of the kitul palm.
Raju interrupts the story of his education to return to Velan. A "partition suit" would be a lawsuit involving property lost in the division ("partition") of India at independence, when Pakistan was created out of the northern regions. Marriage with cousins is not uncommon. Almost all weddings are planned with the advice of astrologers. Why does he gain such a reputation as wise man ( yogi )? A "great soul" is a mahatma, the title given to Mohandas K. Gandhi. What do you think are Raju's real motives for seeking isolation and quiet? Note Raju's fear that Velan might suppose that he didn't need food. In fact in the last and holiest stage of a Hindu mystic's life he should voluntarily starve to death. Temples are everywhere in India; it is not at all implausible that someone should show up and announce himself as priest of an abandoned one. There is no formal priesthood, no systematic way to become a holy man: one merely earns the respect and veneration of other worshipers. A plantain is a large, firm, rather bland relative of the banana: a very cheap source of nourishment. What indication is there that the boy is not awed by Raju?
Chapter Three
We return again to the narrative of his childhood. Bagpipes were introduced into India by the British, and often played at festive official events. The coconuts are broken on the tracks as an act of sacrifice, but there is also an analogy to smashing a bottle of champagne on the prow of a new ship when it is launched. A jutka is a modest horse-drawn taxi. "Horse gram" is grain to feed the horse. Raju was exposed to fraud early in his life. What effect do you think it had on him?
Chapter Four
Back to "the present." Describe Raju's thoughts and behavior during the negotiations with the schoolmaster. The Ramayana is the traditional epic of the heroic deeds of the god Rama, the most popular collection of stories in India.
Again we go back into Raju's childhood. "Biscuits" are baked goods like cookies, rather than what Americans call biscuits. What skills did Raju learn while working in the station shop?
His own exceedingly informal education provides the background for the next scene, where he "teaches" the children. Why does Raju urge independent thought on his listeners. What effects do the villagers' belief in him have on Raju?
Chapter Five
Again we return to Raju's youth. Why do you think the novel alternates between the story of Raju's career as a guru and his earlier life? How did he become a guide? What are his opinions of travelers? Parvathi (more commonly "Parvati") is the consort of the god Shiva. According to this legend, she would have voluntarily leapt into a fire, creating the source of the Sarayu River, which flows into the Ganges. This is not a common story about Parvathi. Can you tell me whether Narayan is just making it up? What kind of guide is he? What sorts of techniques does he use? Note how casually Rosie is introduced into the story, long after we have been told about her influence on Raju's life. The dhoti is a common loose, baggy cloth used as trousers by men. A jibba is a sort of shirt. Cobras are actually deaf: what they react to is the swaying of the been , the snake-charmer's instrument here called a "flute." It is actually a rather nasal-sounding reed instrument with a gourd at one end to develop the sound. A tout is a sort of go-between who arranges and promotes business. How does Raju's passion for Rosie develop? Traditional Indian housewives cook and serve while the men eat, then eat their own food afterwards. "Lead, Kindly Light" is the title of a popular hymn. Why did Rosie marry her husband? A dhobi is a laundry. Note that at the time this novel was written Raju's persistence at the end of the chapter would not have been viewed as negatively as it might be today.
Chapter Six
Back to the village temple. Dasara (also called Dussehra or Durga Puja) is devoted to the powerful goddess Durga. Deepavali (now usually called Divali ) is the annual festival celebrating the return of the sun after the rainy season, very popular all over Hindu India and celebrates the victory of Rama over Ravana. Since Durga is a famous demon-slayer, both are festivals celebrating victories over demons. More information on Dasara. More information on Deepavali. How is Raju being affected by his life as a holy man? Swamiji: "-ji" is an honorific suffix. The villagers are not as unusually superstitious as one might suppose; many Westerners wondered in the fifties whether jet planes and nuclear bomb tests might have altered the weather. What are the main effects of the drought? Raju got the idea of threatening a fast in order to stop the fighting from Mahatma Gandhi, who put an end to violent conflicts during the struggle for independence by fasting nearly to death. How is his threat transformed? When Velan says "We derive merit from watching your face" he is alluding to the Hindu belief in darshan, according to which witnessing holy objects or persons is a spiritual blessing. Velan's description of the proper procedures for Raju to follow are those used by the real holy man on whose story this novel is based. Sadhu: holy man. Why doesn't Raju run away? At the end of the chapter we learn how Raju came to be telling Velan the story which makes up the rest of this novel.
Chapter Seven
Jawaharlal Nehru, close associate of Gandhi in the struggle for independence, was India's first prime minister (1947-1964) . Who do you think is most to blame for Rosie's unhappiness? Why? Why do you think Raju has not referred to her dancing again? Nataraja is an incarnation of the creator/destroyer God Shiva, who danced the world into existence. More information about Nataraja. Why does he encourage her dancing? A pundit is a scholar. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the two classical epics of Hinduism, filled with tales often enacted by dancers. The main theme of temple dancing is love for a god, expressed in the metaphors of human love between woman and man. This is why Rosie says "Lover means always God"--in this case Krishna, who was born as a human and passed through all the stages of mortal life. What is the effect of her dancing on Raju? What are "Marco's" attitudes toward his wife? What do you think has happened to change Rosie's behavior toward Raju? When Raju talks about suffering "the usual symptoms," what is he referring to? A "tank" is a reservoir such as all Hindus like to have nearby for bathing, washing clothes, etc. According to one legend, the River Ganges tried to destroy the god Shiva, but he absorbed it into his hair.
Discuss Raju's mother's reactions to Rosie and how they change. What was Marco's reaction to Rosie's desire to dance? Othello murdered his wife Desdemona out of (mistaken) jealousy. What does Rosie mean by saying "I thought that Othella was kindlier to Desdemona?" What does Raju's mother think is the solution to dealing with problematic husbands? Savitri succeeded in persuading Yama, the god of death, to restore her husband Satyavan to life. She is the archetype of the devoted wife in Hindu mythology. Just as most students in Narayan's fiction do poorly in school, most of his businessmen go bankrupt. Saithan: devil.
Chapter Eight
What conflicting feelings does Raju's mother have toward Rosie? A godown is a sort of warehouse. What is Raju's reaction to his legal problems? Note how the power of the extended Indian family sweeps over the individual when Raju's uncle arrives. Pan or Paan is betel leaf wrapped around areca nut, the habitual stimulant of many Indians. "Quit" means "leave." Meena Kumari was a Hindi film star famous for her dancing. It is as if an American actress of the fifties were trying to choose a stage name and her boyfriend suggested "Marilyn Monroe"--hardly original, or practical. Note how Rosie's artistry overcomes the doubts of the Union officials. Temple-dancing was still struggling to overcome its negative reputation.
Chapter Nine
What effect does it have to alternate the story of Raju's success with Rosie with his troubles as a holy man in the village? Why isn't his life story in strict chronological order? How does Raju react to Rosie's success? Saraswathi is a goddess of knowledge and scholarship. Her image is often placed in libraries. Sabha: village council . How does Raju's tendency to simply forget about troublesome issues complicate his life? What do you make of Rosie's change in attitude toward Marco? Karma is fate.
Chapter Ten
Brinjals are eggplants. Which of Raju's personality traits are manifested in prison? What affect does his imprisonment have on Rosie/Nalini?
Chapter Eleven
Finally the narrative times fuse together as Raju finishes telling the story of his life to Velan. What effect does it produce to have this chapter follow the story of his disaster with Nalini? How is Raju changed by his fast? Why does the anti-malaria film fail to deliver its intended message? What do you think of the end of the novel? Is it ambiguous? What tone do you think it has: sad, comic, tragic . . . ? What evidence is there that Raju is deluded at the end?
Summary -2
The Guide is a 1958 novel written in English by the Indian author R. K. Narayan. It is one of the author's most critically acclaimed novels.[citation needed] Like most of his works the novel is based in Malgudi, the fictional town in South India. The novel describes the transformation of the protagonist, Raju from a tour guide to a spiritual guide.
Plot summary
Raju is a railway guide who becomes obsessed with Rosie, the neglected wife of an archaeologist Marco. Rosie has a passion for dancing which Marco doesn't approve of. Rosie, encouraged by Raju, decides to follow her dreams and walks out on her husband. Raju becomes her stage manager and soon with the help of Raju's marketing tactics, Rosie becomes a successful dancer. Raju, however, develops an inflated sense of self-importance and tries to control Rosie. Gradually, the relationship between Raju and Rosie becomes strained. Marco reappears and Raju inadvertently gets involved in a case of forgery and gets a two year sentence. After completing the sentence, Raju is passing through a village when he is mistaken for a sadhu (a spiritual guru). Reluctant not having to return in disgrace to Malgudi, he stays in an abandoned temple. There is a famine in the village and Raju is expected to keep a fast to get the rains. With media publicizing his fast,a huge crowd gathers (much to Raju's resentment) to watch him fast. After fasting for several days, he goes to the riverside one morning as part of his daily ritual, where his legs sag down as he feels that the rain is falling in the hills. The ending of the novel leaves unanswered the question of whether he dies, or whether the drought has really ended.
Character of Rosie
Rosie is one of the main characters of the novel “The Guide” by R.K. Narayan. She is presented in the novel as a beautiful dancer, of the Devadasi variety of temple dancers, and the wife of Marco. Her marriage has been like a curse in disguise to her as Marco is totally engrossed in his career and is totally apathetic and unemotional to her. She is very passionate about dancing but her husband does not allow her to dance. She tries to persuade her husband and bears all the insults by him just for the sake that she will be able to get permission to dance. When she was left by Marco in Malgudi and was living with Raju she devoted herself completely to dancing. She woke early in the morning and practiced hard for three hours regularly. She is always willing to talk about dance and even tries to teach Raju some tips of it.
She is religious by nature as she believes in Goddess Saraswati and have the bronze image of Nataraja in her office. She doesn’t discriminate people on the basis of their financial status. On one hand when Raju prefers to meet people who are very rich and influential in the society Rosie doesn’t care much about these people. Being herself an artist she respects art and likes to be in the company of artist and other music lovers.
Her success doesn’t gets to her head as she remains a down to earth person even after becoming very successful in her dancing career. Once Raju became very upset as Rosie spent lot of time with different artists and not with him. He came to her and said that these artists come to her because they are inferior to her then she replies to him saying that she is tired of all the talk of superior and inferior and doesn’t believe in all these things.
She is also like a traditional Indian wife. Her husband is like God to her. Marco calls her dancing skills as street acrobatics and compares it to monkey dance. Despite all these insults she continues to be his wife. When Marco came to know about the intimacy between her and Raju he became very upset and didn’t talk to her and completely ignored her presence. She apologized to him and kept on following him like a dog hoping that his mind would change one day but that did not happen. This incident shows her tremendous tolerance power and her optimistic attitude. Even after she became very successful in her career and independent of her husband Marco she still had his photo which meant that she still considered Marco to be her husband and highlights her traditional Indian wife kind of character. So the novel “The Guide” may also be viewed as the story of a weak submissive girl who because of talent, her hard work and little help from Raju went on to become a strong, successful and independent woman.

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30. Kanthapura – Raja Rao
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Book review by Mabel Annie Chacko (India, 06/11/05)
Raja Rao's novel Kanthapura (1938) is the first major Indian novel in English. It is a fictional but realistic account of how the great majority of people in India lived their lives under British rule and how they responded to the ideas and ideals of Indian nationalism. The book has been considered by many to be the first classic modern Indian writing in English and is thought of as one of the best, if not the best, Gandhian novels in English.

Kanthapura - The Village:

'Kanthapura' portrays the participation of a small village of South India in the national struggle called for by Mahatma Gandhi. Imbued with nationalism, the villagers sacrifice all their material possessions in a triumph of the spirit, showing how in the Gandhian movement people shed their narrow prejudices and united in the common cause of the non-violent civil resistance to the British Raj.

This village is a microcosm of the traditional Indian society with its entrenched caste hierarchy. In Kanthapura there are Brahmin quarters, Sudra quarters and Pariah quarters. Despite stratification into castes, however, the villagers are mutually bound in various economic and social functions which maintain social harmony. The enduring quality of the Indian village is represented as ensuring an internal tenacity that resists external crises, its relationship to past contributing a sense of unity and continuity between the present and past generations. Kanthapura may appear isolated and removed from civilization, but it is compensated by an ever-enriching cycle of ceremonies, rituals, and festivals.

Rao depicts the regular involvement of the villagers in Sankara-Jayanthi, Kartik Purnima, Ganesh-Jayanthi, Dasara, and the Satyanarayana Puja with the intention of conveying a sense of the natural unity and cohesion of village society. Old Ramakrishnayya reads out the Sankara-Vijaya day after day and the villagers discuss Vedanta with him every afternoon. Religion, imparted through discourses and pujas (prayers), keeps alive in the natives a sense of the presence of God. Participation in a festival brings about the solidarity among them. The local deity Kenchamma protects the villagers "through famine and disease, death and despair". If the rains fail, you fall at her feet. Equally sacred is the river Himavathy which flows near Kanthapura.


The Strategic Setting of the Novel:

Rao's choice of this village setting is strategic in view of his Gandhian loyalties. Gandhi locates his politics in the villages of India where the majority of Indian's population resides. Rao maintains the sanctity of the village at an ideological level, but permits mobility and change to heighten the historical significance of the national struggle Gandhi conceptualized.

The time when the action of the novel is set is the 1920s and 1930s, the period when Mahatma Gandhi had become the pivotal figure in India's struggle for freedom. Rao treats the history of the freedom movement at the level of hostility between village folk and the British colonial authority at a time when colonialism had become intensely heavy-handed in its response to the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Kanthapura is an enchanting story of how the independence movement becomes a tragic reality in a tiny and secluded village in South India. The novel has the flavor of an epic as it emerges through the eyes of a delightful old woman who comments with wisdom and humor.


Telling of the Novel:

As far as the form and technique of the novel is concerned Rao makes a deliberate attempt to follow traditional Indian narrative technique and it is Indian sensibility that informs Kanthapura. In fact both the spirit and the narrative technique of Kanthapura are primarily those of the Indian Puranas, which may be described as a popular encyclopaedia of ancient and medieval Hinduism, religious, philosophical, historical and social. Rao at the outset describes his novel as a sthala-purana - legend of a place. The Puranas are a blend of narration, description, philosophical reflection, and religious teaching. The style is usually simple, flowing, and digressive.

Rao makes a highly innovative use of the English language to make it conform to the Kannada rhythm. In keeping with his theme in Kanthapura he experiments with language following the oral rhythms and narrative techniques of traditional models of writing. The emotional upheaval that shook Kanthapura is expressed by breaking the formal English syntax to suit the sudden changes of mood and sharp contrasts in tone. While the intuitive borrowing from language takes place at one level in the novel, at another interconnected level, "real" India is constructed by enshrining the novel in Gandhian ideology. It is a highly original style. The author's "Foreword" to the novel almost spells out the postcolonial cultural agenda:
The telling has not been easy. One has to convey in a language that is not one's own the spirit that is one's own. One has to convey the various shades and omissions of a certain though-movement that looks maltreated in an alien language. I use the word 'alien', yet English is not really an alien language to us. It is the language of our intellectual make-up-like Sanskrit or Persian was before- but not of our emotional make-up. We are all instinctively bilingual, many of us writing in our own language and in English. We cannot write like the English. We should not. We cannot write only as Indians.

Rao's novel is significant as a cultural tract which rewrites true history against the "inauthentic" historical accounts compiled by Europeans, and because it effects a cultural revival through the use of indigenous themes and motifs. Rao is also alive to the fact that religion has the potential to move people beyond dormancy - to display active political energy to the extent of sacrificing their lives. Kanthapura evokes a sense of community and freedom, construed as a spiritual quality which overcomes all bounds and crosses all barriers.

In order to allow an easy interchange between the world of men and the world of gods, between contemporaneity and antiquity, Rao thus equips his story with a protagonist whose role it is to enthuse the villagers into joining the political cause of India's struggle for freedom without reservation.

The tension between these two often contradictory levels of writing - the mythic/poetic and the political/prosaic - is the defining characteristic of the novel. As will be seen, this tension is both a strength and a weakness to the narrative; on the one hand enhancing its sheer readability as a story, and on the other hand blurring readers' understanding of the realities of the Indian Independence struggle.


Moorthy and other Characters - Raja Rao's Tools in Telling:

He focuses on two individual leaders and their beliefs; the actual and the mythicized figure of Gandhi, and his transmutation into Moorthy, the saintly hero of the novel. As the movement reaches Kanthapura, young Moorthy, son of a Brahmin woman, Narasamma, takes up the responsibility of spreading Gandhi's message. He brings about cultural awakening among the villages by organizing harikathas ("tales of gods"). By a subtle subversion the harikatha is turned into an allegory of India's struggle for freedom wherein the Gandhian saga is inscribed. Moorthy visits the city, and returns a "Gandhi man". He has become a spokesman for Gandhi, by submitting to his attitudes and beliefs. The villagers describe him as "our own Gandhi", yet interestingly he never has an actual meeting with Gandhi. He has only seen him in a "vision" addressing a public meeting with himself pushing his way through the crowd and joining the band of volunteers and receiving inspiration by a touch of Gandhi's hand. This enables Rao to turn the historical moment into a visionary experience, and opens a space for the possibility of assumed politics.

Moorthy preaches and practices ahimsa (non-violent resistance), the hallmark of Gandhi's appeal to the public, and evokes an overwhelming response among the villagers who unite in common cause, ready to break the British laws, picket toddy shops, and fight against social evils like untouchability.

Moorthy has several sympathetic souls with him: Rangamma, the kind lady and a patron for harikatha celebrations, Ratna, the young widowed daughter of Kamalamma, Rangamma's sister, Patel Range Gowda, the revenue collector, and others. But there are also sceptics, like the foul mouthed Venkamma. His own mother is much concerned about Moorthys mixing with the low caste pariahs. Indeed, when someone spreads the rumour that the Swami - the priest; upholder of dharma - has threatened the villagers with excommunication if Moorthy continues to go around with the pariahs, Naraamma is terribly upset; she sobs and shivers and soon dies.

He has to resist orthodoxy at the social level, and at the political level he has to fight the British authority symbolized by the Skeffington Coffee Estate and the police inspector Bade Khan who is out to suppress any undercurrent of Gandhian movement in Kanthapura. Moorthy's efforts bear fruit and the village changes. Rao is careful to point out that the transformation occurs through a complex dynamism negotiated through tradition and change, as the village affiliates itself to wider nationalistic cause.

The British find their ally in Swami, who supports them as upholders of dharma and is rewarded with "twelve hundred acres of wet land" by the Government. Meanwhile Moorthy's message spreads far and wide and several private temples are thrown open to the untouchables.

Rao does not marginalize the role of women in the freedom movement and highlights their individual contributions. Rangamma and Ratna form women's volunteer groups, despite opposition from the orthodox. Moorthy and his volunteers closely monitor the Mahatma's Dandi march and enact their own satyagraha in Kanthapura. They picket toddy shops, and are joined by more volunteers from the city, and by the coolies from the Skeffington Coffee Estate. Their march is opposed by the police who beat them up mercilessly. The police tell them to be loyal to the British Government, but the people say they know only the Government of the Mahatma. Moorthy and several others are arrested. As a result of the police atrocities the entire village is desolate and, in the end, "there remains neither man nor mosquito in Kanthapura".


Conclusion:

Kanthapura has been described as the most satisfying of all modern Indian novels. Recognized as a major landmark in Indian fiction, it is the story of how the Gandhian struggle for Independence came to one small village in south India.

"There is more to Raja Rao's book than a morality tale. It is written in an elegant style verging on poetry; it has all the content of an ancient Indian classic, combined with a sharp satirical wit and a clear understanding of the present. The author's extensive notes (printed as an appendix) will prove invaluable to the general reader." - New York Times

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31 The Untouchable , Mulk Raj Anand
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The Untouchable by Mulk Raj Anand deals with a burning topic of ancient India, which still prevails in some places. This creation of Anand was published in England with a preface by E. M. Forster: "Untouchable could only have been written by an Indian. And by an Indian who observed from the outside. No European, however sympathetic, could have created the character of Bakha, because he would not have known enough about his troubles. And no Untouchable could have written the book, because he would have been involved in indignation and self-pity."

Mulk Raj Anand is a great writer with lots of write-ups in his name. In 1930s and 1940s, Anand divided his time between London and India. He joined the struggle for independence, but also fought with the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War. During World War II, he worked as a broadcaster and scriptwriter in the film division of the BBC in London. After the war Anand returned permanently to India. He starts living in Bombay and makes the place as his center of activity. In 1946 he founded the fine-arts magazine Marg. He also became a director of Kutub Publishers. From 1948 to 1966 Anand taught at different Indian universities. In the 1960s he was Professor of Literature and Fine Art at the University of Punjab and visiting professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies in Simla. Afterwards he became the chairman at Lalit Kala Akademi or National Academy of Arts. In 1970 he was appointed president of Lokayata Trust, for creating a community and cultural center in the village of Hauz Khas. Mulk Raj Anand was greatly influenced by Gandhiji. His main languages were Punjabi and Hindi but he started writing in English at an early age.

Synopsis:
`The Untouchable` narrates a day in the life of Bakha who is an unclean outcaste. His sufferings and a number of humiliations in the course of his day are enlaced in a beautiful manner. Bakha is eighteen, proud, `strong and able-bodied`, a child of modern India, who has started to think himself as superior to his fellow-outcastes. The `touching` occurs in the morning, and subsequently shadows the rest of the day. Due to his low birth, Bakha does the work of a latrine sweeper. Anand poured a vitality, fire and richness of detail in the story and that`s why this has become one of the mark able creation of Mulk Raj Anand. The story of `The Untouchable` was inspired by the author`s childhood memory of a low-caste sweeper boy carried him home after he has been injured. In return of his good work the boy was beaten by Anand`s mother for touching her higher-caste son. The book of Mulk Raj Anand is published by Penguin USA, which is a great work concerning a burning issue of some parts of India.

The `Untouchable` is Mulk Raj Anand`s finest and most controversial novel in which he conveys precisely the matter of untouchables. Bakha is a proud, young and attractive man who is an outcast in a system. Anand displays compassion for the plight of untouchables but he does this without the issue of sentimentality. In many ways the novel represents his thinking beyond the limits of Gandhi`s idea of untouchables as harijans.

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32 Shashi Deshpande: That Long Silence
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The term identity crisis gains a contour in this novel the long silence. It is the story of Jaya, the housewife who is seen always engaged in searching her own identity. Set ideally against the Indian backdrop "The Long Silence" raises that eternal question whether woman lives for them or for someone else like their husband or children.

Shashi Deshpande was born in Dharwad, Karnataka in the year of 1938. In the childhood she completed her education in Karnataka after completing the preliminary stage she shifted to Mumbai for further study and then again move back to Bangalore to do the law. She currently lives in Bangalore with her husband who is pathologist. She holds degrees in economics, law and English literature. She is the daughter of Sriranga, a famous Kannada dramatist and Sanskrit scholar. According to Shashi Deshpande herself, she did not make a conscious decision to be a writer but stumbled into being one out of boredom. But once into it, there could be nothing else. Shashi wanted to express her feelings about the society and its various aspects and this was the perfect platform to make the reader aware of any burning issues. Her novels are deeply rooted in India and this is the specialty of her writing. The characters, settings, and the conflicts, are inherently Indian. Above all, she is a storyteller. Her short stories have been widely anthologized throughout the country. Shashi Deshpande also won the Sahitya Akademi Award for her novel `That Long Silence`.

Synopsis:
`That Long Silence` is an acclaimed novel by Shashi Deshapande. In this story the author reveals an intriguing picture of an ordinary middle class educated women. The name of the protagonist is Jaya who lives with her husband Mohan and two children Rahul and Rati. The story entirely revolves around jaya her married life and her role as a dutiful wife. She plays the role of an affectionate mother, dutiful to her in-laws and her relatives. It gives a simple enchanting scenes solely expressed by the author. The efforts of being a middle class educated yet confined to restrictions posed by the conservative society is well established in the story. According to the author husbands don`t give attention to wives emotions, likes and dislikes. The author expresses the emotion with vivid details like that of lovemaking, relationship with children, etc. She reflects her lifestyle, her role clarity, is she living for her or for someone else, etc. Through out the story she is engaged in searching her identity as an individual. In this story one situation arises when husband and wife`s relation was given an offbeat. Two individuals though very intimate but couldn`t relate each other in terms of feelings or understanding. Many married women might find some instances similar in their every day lives after reading the story. Author has done a good job in expressing intimacy. Sexual feelings are expressed in its natural tone.

`That Long Silence` is published by one of the famous publishing house named Vigaro Pr in the month of June 1988.

`That Long Silence` by Shashi Deshpande is based in the context of contemporary Indian writing in English, Deshpande is one of the most understated yet confident voices, who explores individual and universal predicaments through the female psyche.
Review -2
"I don't like to call myself a feminist writer. I say I'm a feminist, but I don't write to propagate an ism"- Shashi Deshpande

The words of Shashi Deshpande stresses her inclination to the ideas of Judith Butler, who boldly stated that feminism, reasserts the difference between male and female genders. Deshpande's realistic view as a true feminist on the condition of middle class Indian women is well expressed in her novel That Long Silence, which won the Sahitya Akademi award in 1990.

That Long Silence, is not an imaginary story. It is a story that happens in every middle class and educated Indian woman"s life. Yes, the Indian women in this era are born at a time when there is much awareness about her rights, liberty to express her ideas, freedom to enjoy finance and the chance to stand for a cause. Still… the silence continues!

The protagonist Jaya is an educated middle class woman who lives with her husband Mohan and their kids Rahul and Rati. She is the typical Indian middle class woman in the present century who is confined between her realizations and the restrictions. Her father brought up Jaya as an "individual", who has the rights in the society as well as family irrespective of gender. Yet, this upbringing still looks strange in front a society that hesitates to accept the woman as an individual.

Immediately after her graduation Jaya gets married and steps into her role as a dutiful wife, affectionate mother, "carefully being" dutiful to her in-laws…. to Aa, Ajji, kaka and her relatives. Her husband Mohan also plays his role as a dutiful Indian husband and never looks up to consider any imperfections in the life. As time goes Jaya"s dutiful behaviour to Mohan and his family becomes a routine.

According to the author Indian husbands take in for granted their wives emotions, likes and dislikes to be same like them and here author reciprocates the emotions in vivid detail. The husband never realizes where he lacks and the agony behind his wife"s destined roles.

Jaya ponders throughout the novel for her role clarity, her life or is she living for someone else! She searches her identity as an individual and where her emotions are getting subdued! She, a failed writer and who had been forced to change her name as "Suhasini" to get submissive in marriage gets haunted by memories of the past. Mohan leaves home due to his failure in career and to avoid the situation of "two bullocks yoked together." By the end of the novel Jaya gets back to her destined role, being present to the happiness of the family and ready to subdue her emotions.

As a middle class and educated Indian woman, as you reads through, you may intend to question your own identity. I recommend this book to anyone with endemic imbalance in a marriage. Relate to it as your own expression of frustrations!